From Runway to Code - Fashion’s Evolution from 1.0 to 6.0 Through the Lens of Bourdieu’s Capital

Historically, the intersection of fashion and technology might have elicited surprise or skepticism. Yet, a closer examination reveals that both domains have been interwoven since the earliest instances of dressmaking. Traditional tailoring evolved in tandem with technological innovations-from the rudimentary implements of early humans to the intricate machinery of the Industrial Revolution. Today, however, the dialogue between fashion and technology has reached a new sophistication. This paper sets out to redefine the notion of “fashion technology” (or “fashtech”) by systematically examining the transformative impact of emerging digital tools and innovations [1].

While past discussions often relied on less rigorous, Internet-derived observations, our approach combines theoretical insights with systematic analysis [2]. By revisiting Pierre Bourdieu’s seminal concept of capital, we demonstrate how economic, cultural, social, and symbolic forms of capital are reconfigured in today’s fashtech era. Moreover, this analysis highlights both the transformative opportunities and the inherent risks of this evolving intersection, setting the stage for a comprehensive exploration of contemporary fashion’s future [3,4].

Historical trajectories and future pathways

A look back: Early convergences: The notion that fashion requires technology is hardly new. The craft of tailoring dates back tens of thousands of years, evolving through numerous iterations to produce buttons, zippers, and other innovations that are today taken for granted. The Industrial Revolution, which spanned roughly from 1760 to 1840, was a critical inflection point. Inventions such as the Spinning Jenny, the Water Frame, and the Spinning Mule transformed textile production and laid the foundation for mass fashion. Key innovators like J. Hargreaves, Crompton, and Arkwright spearheaded a movement that redefined manufacturing, which in turn made stylish dress available to a much broader public.

From a legal and cultural perspective, these technological advancements also spurred the creation of intellectual property regimes and new business strategies. Companies like I. M. Singer & Company exemplified how embracing technological innovationthrough practices such as licensing, trade-ins, and rigorous quality control-could secure market dominance and foster brand loyalty.

Projecting forward: The Vision of Fashion Futures: In 2010, Levi Strauss & Co. collaborated with Forum for the Future’s “Action for a Sustainable World” initiative [5]. Four speculative scenarios were outlined to envision the trajectory of the fashion industry. These scenarios, initially perceived as imaginative forecasts, have increasingly come to mirror reality:
A. Slow is Beautiful: A future where sustainability and durability are valued over mass production [6].
B. Community Couture: An era marked by DIY creativity and localized production in response to resource scarcity [7].
C. Techno-Chic: A vision of high-tech fabrics and virtual shopping experiences [8].
D. Patchwork Planet: A world where regional and culturally distinct fashion trends thrive alongside global digital connectivity.

As we near 2025, these once-speculative ideas are steadily influencing contemporary practices-from sustainable production methods to the adoption of smart textiles-underscoring the dynamic evolution of fashion in a digital age.

Technological innovations in fashion

Defining fashion technology: Fashion technology, in its broadest sense, encompasses the technical advances that have facilitated the evolution of clothing-from the first sewing needles to today’s smart fabrics [9]. More narrowly, “Fashion Tech” refers to the digital and technological innovations that enhance the design, production, and marketing of fashion products. This includes developments such as digital platforms, wearables, augmented reality, and artificial intelligence, which are transforming the consumer experience and reshaping the supply chain.

Researchers and practitioners have begun to classify Fashion Tech into three key areas:
A. Digital Technology: Encompassing wearable devices, blockchain for circular consumption, and connected supply chains.
B. Physical Technology: Including innovations such as 3D printing, nanomaterials, and robotics.
C. Biological Technology: Covering bio-based materials, renewable energy solutions, and biomimetic designs.

These categories illustrate the multifaceted nature of innovation in fashion [10], with digital transformations serving as the latest frontier in an industry long defined by its reliance on technological progress.

Milestones in fashion tech: The integration of high fashion and cutting-edge technology is not a recent phenomenon. In 2013, Diane von Furstenberg famously showcased a collection featuring models adorned with Google Glass, symbolizing an early merger of design and digital connectivity. Since then, initiatives like the H&M Foundation’s Global Change Awards have further underscored the importance of technology in achieving sustainability. Awardwinning projects have ranged from blockchain systems that certify sustainable fibers to AI-driven pattern cutting systems that reduce waste. As these innovations gain traction, they are not only influencing production techniques but also shaping consumer interactions, offering more personalized, immersive, and sustainable fashion experiences [11].

The evolutionary stages of fashion: From 1.0 to 6.0

Fashion history can be segmented into distinct evolutionary phases, each marked by unique technological and cultural shifts. Here, we revisit these stages while integrating Bourdieu’s concept of capital to examine how each phase redefines power, prestige, and participation within the industry [12-15].

Fashion 1.0: The traditional era: In the pre-digital age, fashion was synonymous with haute couture, exclusive retail spaces, and rigid seasonal cycles. Iconic fashion capitals-Paris, Milan, London, and New York-served as the epicenters of creativity and influence. Fashion 1.0 was characterized by:
A. Cultural Capital: Mastery of artisanal techniques and a deep knowledge of couture history.
B. Social Capital: Exclusive networks and high-society events.
C. Economic Capital: Wealth-driven luxury brands.
D. Symbolic Capital: The prestige attached to classic labels and exclusive collections.

High fashion houses and physical runways dominated, and the slow, deliberate pace of production reinforced notions of quality and exclusivity.

Fashion 2.0: The digital disruption: The digital revolution catalyzed profound changes. Fashion 2.0 witnessed the rise of fast fashion, e-commerce, and influencer culture. Brands like Zara and H&M revolutionized the market by drastically shortening designto- market timelines, while social media platforms redefined the channels of influence:
A. Cultural Capital: New expertise in digital trend analysis and influencer marketing.
B. Social Capital: Online networks and the democratization of trendsetting.
C. Economic Capital: Rapid production models underpinned by global supply chains.
D. Symbolic Capital: The reconfiguration of prestige to include digital savviness and accessibility.

This era underscored the tension between rapid, accessible production and the loss of the traditional exclusivity that had long defined fashion.

Fashion 3.0: Embracing the virtual and sustainable: Fashion 3.0 marks the integration of virtual reality, artificial intelligence, and sustainability into the fabric of the industry. Virtual fashion shows, digital wardrobes, and AI-based design tools have emerged as central elements:
A. Cultural Capital: Expertise in virtual design and digital aesthetics.
B. Social Capital: Online communities and blockchain-enabled collaborations.
C. Economic Capital: The rise of digital commerce platforms and tech-integrated luxury.
D. Symbolic Capital: The growing value of digital ownership, as seen in NFT collections.

Innovations like Balenciaga’s immersive VR runway and Gucci’s digital sneakers illustrate how the boundaries between physical and virtual fashion are increasingly blurred.

At Paris Fashion Week in September 2022, designer Victor Weinsanto unveiled the “M3TALOVE” collection-a groundbreaking collaboration with K-Pop girl group LIGHTSUM and Web3 fashion platform Brand New Vision (BNV) (Figure 1). Presented in a subterranean gallery beneath Weinsanto’s physical runway show in the Marais district, the collection featured eight digital-only couture looks, each tailored to reflect the unique personality of a LIGHTSUM member. These virtual designs were displayed as 3D holograms within glass cases, offering attendees an immersive glimpse into the future of fashion. Crafted by BNV’s “meta tailors,” the collection exemplifies the fusion of high fashion and digital innovation, marking a significant milestone in the evolution of Fashion 3.0 [16].

Figure 1:Weinsanto digital wearables for K-Pop girl group Lightsum realised by BNV meta tailors. BNV / WEINSANTO [16].

Following the successful unveiling of the M3TALOVE collection during Paris Fashion Week in September 2022, BNV (Brand New Vision)-a pioneering force in the metaverse fashion ecosystemofficially launched the public NFT mint of the collection on 16 January 2023. This drop marked a major milestone in the convergence of digital fashion, K-pop culture, and Web3 innovation. The M3TALOVE collection, the product of a groundbreaking collaboration between avant-garde Parisian designer Victor Weinsanto, K-pop sensation LIGHTSUM, and BNV’s metaverse expertise, became available for public purchase via both crypto wallets and traditional credit cards on the BNV platform (bnv.me). This initiative aimed to democratize access to fashion NFTs and virtual wearables, lowering the barriers for mainstream audiences and fashion enthusiasts alike to participate in metaverse culture [17] (Figure 2).

Figure 2:BNV M3talove Victor Weinsanto X Lightsum [17].

Comprising six digitally crafted outfits, the M3TALOVE NFTs are among the first K-pop-linked collections to be commercially accessible to non-crypto-native consumers. Each purchase came bundled with an extensive suite of virtual and real-world utilities offered by all three collaborating entities. LIGHTSUM fans were granted access to digital experiences such as pre-recorded concert performances, metaverse-exclusive dance emotes, unreleased selfies, virtual meetings with the band, as well as tangible items like signed albums and posters. From Weinsanto, holders received VIP experiences including front-row seats and backstage access to upcoming fashion shows, personalized thank-you videos, exclusive collection previews, and wearable metaverse accessories like the signature M3TALOVE glasses. BNV augmented the package with full metaverse interoperability of the outfits across platforms like Decentraland and The Sandbox, loyalty rewards in the form of FA$H Cred, early access to future collaborations, and invitations to physical BNV events. The project also included a mini documentary chronicling the creation of the collection, where all NFT holders would be credited by name or wallet address-blurring the lines between fashion patronage and participatory cultural coauthorship [17].

Fashion 4.0: Smart manufacturing and biotechnological integration: In Fashion 4.0, the industry embraces smart manufacturing, automation, and biotechnological breakthroughs. This phase is marked by the convergence of IoT-driven factories, biofabricated materials, and wearable technologies:
A. Cultural Capital: Knowledge of sustainable, tech-enhanced production methods.
B. Social Capital: Networks formed around ethical and ecoconscious practices.
C. Economic Capital: Investments in IoT and automation that redefine production efficiency.
D. Symbolic Capital: The prestige of sustainability combined with technological innovation.

Examples such as Adidas’ Speedfactory and the development of lab-grown silk exemplify how technology can drive both efficiency and environmental responsibility.

Figure 3 [18] captures a diverse array of prototypes and fabric swatches derived from plant-based, fungal, and microbial sources, illustrating the industry’s transition from conventional synthetics to regenerative and circular material solutions.

Each innovation represents a unique breakthrough: from mycelium-grown leather alternatives to biosynthetic polymers made through microbial fermentation. It reflects a shift toward closed-loop innovation, highlighting how science, design, and biotechnology intersect to redefine the future of fashion.

Biomaterials are materials derived wholly or in part from biological sources such as plants, trees, or animals. This category encompasses both conventional materials-such as pure cotton and animal leather-and novel alternatives developed through bioengineering and green chemistry, including plant- or fruitbased leather substitutes, which may be either purely biological or combined with synthetic polymers. The evaluation of biomaterials typically involves a life-cycle approach structured around four core criteria: feedstock, process, product, and end-of-use.

Feedstock refers to the biological origin and cultivation method of the raw material-whether it is harvested directly, extracted from biomass, or cultivated through controlled agricultural or laboratory processes. Process concerns the method of transformation, which may involve microbial fermentation, enzymatic conversion, or physical-chemical refinement; it is critical to assess whether such processes produce hazardous by-products or involve toxic intermediaries. Product focuses on the composition of the final material-its purity, whether it is blended with synthetic components, and its functional properties such as mechanical strength, durability, and suitability for use. Lastly, End-of-Use investigates the post-consumer fate of the material: whether it is recyclable, biodegradable, or compostable, and under what specific environmental conditions such degradation can occur.

Within this framework, three key terminologies delineate innovation in biomaterials:
A. Biosynthetic materials are engineered through biosynthesis or catalytic conversion from renewable biological feedstocks such as biomass. This includes the generation of materials like biobased polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or nylon, where the polymer structure mimics that of traditional synthetics but is sourced from biologically derived precursors.
B. Biofabricated materials, often termed biomanufactured, are generated directly through the metabolic activity of living organisms including bacteria, yeast, and fungi. These materials can serve as either final products or as inputs into further processing steps. Notable examples include recombinant spider silk proteins or polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) derived from microbial fermentation, as explored by biotechnology firms such as Spiber and Mango Materials.
C. Bioassembled materials represent a subset of biofabricated innovations, wherein the material’s final structure is directly formed by the growth patterns of the microorganism itself. This includes macroscopic biomaterials such as microbial cellulose and mycelium-based composites-pioneered by companies like Ecovative and Polybion-as sustainable alternatives to animal leather. These materials are not merely grown but also structurally engineered by the organism, resulting in a unique fusionof form and function derived from biological self-assembly.

Fashion 5.0: The era of hyper-personalization: Fashion 5.0 takes customization to new heights through AI, neurotechnology, and decentralized design processes. This stage is characterized by bespoke designs, tailored production, and a focus on individual consumer needs:
A. Cultural Capital: Mastery over hyper-personalized digital design tools.
B. Social Capital: Inclusive design networks that promote collaborative creation.
C. Economic Capital: New models that blend traditional production with on-demand customization.
D. Symbolic Capital: A shift toward ethical, regenerative fashion that values authenticity.

Innovations such as 3D body scanning for custom-fit garments and neuro-responsive wearables highlight how fashion can be both personal and progressive.

In February 2022, researchers at Cornell University’s Department of Human Centered Design introduced an innovative 3D body-mapping technology aimed at enhancing garment fit and promoting sustainability in online shopping (Figure 3) [18]. Developed by Jie Pei during her doctoral research in fiber science and apparel design, this technology addresses the prevalent issue of size and fit discrepancies that often lead consumers to purchase multiple sizes and subsequently return ill-fitting items. Such returns not only incur additional costs for retailers but also contribute to environmental waste, as many returned garments end up in landfills due to the expense of restocking.

Figure 3:Innovations in biomaterials that are part of the Fashion for Good Innovation Programme [18].

The 3D body-mapping system utilizes comprehensive bodyscan data to capture the nuanced variations in human body shapes, going beyond traditional measurements like bust or waist circumference. This allows for a more accurate prediction of garment fit, accommodating the diversity of body shapes within standard sizing categories. Cornell has licensed three patents related to this technology to FIT: MATCH, a retail technology company, facilitating its integration into commercial applications. By enabling consumers to find better-fitting clothing, this advancement has the potential to reduce return rates, decrease textile waste, and lower the carbon footprint associated with online apparel shopping, aligning with broader goals of sustainability in the fashion industry (Figure 4) [19].

Figure 4:CNC-routed body forms developed from 3D body scans [19].

The recent contractual agreements between FIT: MATCH and two globally recognized fashion brands-Savage X Fenty, founded by singer and entrepreneur Robyn Rihanna Fenty, and Fabletics, cofounded by actress Kate Hudson-represent a strategic inflection point in the commercialization and legal validation of biometricdriven retail technology.

Strategically, the involvement of high-profile founders like Rihanna and Kate Hudson offers synergistic brand amplification and consumer trust transfer. Their endorsement elevates FIT: MATCH’s visibility and cultural resonance, especially in markets sensitive to fit inclusivity and digital personalization. Savage X Fenty’s commitment to body diversity aligns directly with FIT: MATCH’s biometric body-mapping technology, while Fabletics’ positioning in performance wear highlights the need for precision in sizing for functional apparel. These alliances enable FIT: MATCH to access diverse consumer segments, reinforce ESG-aligned value propositions (e.g., reduced textile waste through fewer returns), and establish precedence for further integrations across retail categories.

Fashion 6.0: Transhuman and post-human futures: The speculative frontier of Fashion 6.0 envisions a future where the boundaries between the human body and clothing dissolve. Here, garments may be bio-integrated, self-healing, or even grown from the wearer’s own cells:
A. Cultural Capital: New domains of expertise in synthetic biology and quantum materials.
B. Social Capital: Emerging communities that explore posthuman identities.
C. Economic Capital: Investments in cutting-edge technologies that redefine production and ownership.
D. Symbolic Capital: The transformation of fashion into a tool for personal and societal evolution, where the very notion of identity is reimagined.

In a pioneering development at the intersection of synthetic biology and materials science, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have engineered a “wearable device” for microbial cells-an innovation poised to revolutionize how living organisms interact with their environments and with engineered systems (Figure 5) [20].

Figure 5:MIT “wearable device” for microbial cells [20].

The platform, termed CellEYE, consists of an ultrathin, flexible material embedded with microelectronics and biosensors that can be affixed to bacterial colonies, enabling real-time monitoring and modulation of cellular activity.

These innovative, battery-free devices are constructed from a soft polymer known as azobenzene, which responds to specific light wavelengths by rolling into microtubes. This light-induced transformation allows the devices to gently and precisely wrap around neuronal structures such as axons and dendrites without causing cellular damage.

Although still largely conceptual, developments in quantum computing and self-aware textiles hint at a future where fashion is as much about human evolution as it is about style.

Capital in fashion: Bourdieu revisited

Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of capital-encompassing cultural, social, economic, and symbolic elements-provides a robust framework to analyze the evolution of fashion. In this section, we reinterpret each form of capital within the context of modern fashtech.

Traditionally, cultural capital in fashion was defined by mastery of haute couture and historical design knowledge. In today’s digital era, however, cultural capital has expanded to include proficiency in 3D modelling software, digital trend analysis, and online content creation. The democratization of information-through platforms such as TikTok and YouTube-allows a broader audience to gain expertise previously confined to industry elites. This shift not only challenges conventional hierarchies but also enriches the overall cultural discourse [21].

In earlier epochs, social capital was built through exclusive events, personal connections, and elite circles. The digital revolution has transformed this landscape, enabling the formation of vast, virtual networks. Influencers and digital natives build significant social capital via online engagement, and blockchain technology [22] has even created decentralized communities where collaboration is key. These virtual networks offer new routes to influence and prestige that transcend traditional, geographically bound social structures.

Economic capital has always been central to fashion, with the ownership of luxury goods serving as a symbol of wealth. Today, however, economic capital also embraces sustainable investments and digital assets. As ethical consumerism rises, fashion brands that integrate eco-friendly practices are redefining luxury [23]. Moreover, investments in virtual assets-such as NFTs and digital wearables-offer alternative revenue streams and reshape traditional notions of financial success.

Symbolic capital represents the intangible prestige that brands and individuals accumulate over time. While heritage and exclusivity once defined symbolic capital, modern consumers increasingly value transparency, social responsibility, and authenticity. Brands that align themselves with progressive values-whether through inclusive design or sustainable practices-gain symbolic capital that resonates with today’s ethical consumer. The evolution of symbolic capital is thus intertwined with broader social and cultural shifts [24].

Intellectual property and the profitability equation

The protection and monetization of creative assets through intellectual property (IP) rights have long been cornerstones of fashion profitability. In the emerging landscape of Fashion 6.0, IP rights serve as both a shield and a lever for innovation [25].

Legal frameworks designed to protect creative work remain essential. However, the dynamic interplay between IP rights and Bourdieu’s capitals suggests that mere legal protection is insufficient. Brands must leverage IP rights in conjunction with cultural expertise, social networks, and economic investments to fully realize their potential. For example, a digitally innovative brand that protects its virtual designs through IP can also cultivate online communities that enhance its market reach and consumer loyalty.

True profitability in today’s fashion industry emerges when IP rights are embedded within a broader strategic framework. Cultural capital drives innovation, social capital amplifies brand messaging, economic capital facilitates diversified revenue streams and symbolic capital reinforces brand prestige. Together, these elements form a synergistic model that not only protects creative assets but also propels sustained market success.

New discussion: Emerging trends and future implications

As fashion enters an era defined by rapid technological evolution, several new trends are reshaping the industry’s future. This section offers additional discussion on these trends and their implications for both practitioners and theorists.

The integration of physical and digital experiences-often referred to as “phygital” fashion-is one of the most exciting developments. Consumers are increasingly interacting with brands in hybrid spaces where traditional retail meets virtual experiences. This evolution challenges existing marketing models and necessitates a rethinking of how value is created and perceived.

Sustainability is no longer a niche concern but a driving force in consumer decision-making. Ethical production methods, ecofriendly materials, and transparent supply chains are becoming central to brand identity. As ethical considerations become integral to economic and symbolic capital, the fashion industry is witnessing a redefinition of luxury that prioritizes environmental stewardship.

Digital platforms and blockchain technologies are decentralizing the creative process. Designers and consumers alike are collaborating in unprecedented ways, bypassing traditional gatekeepers. This democratization not only disrupts established hierarchies but also fosters an environment where innovation emerges from diverse, global communities.

With rapid innovation come regulatory and ethical challenges. Issues of data privacy, digital copyright, and the environmental impact of new technologies require proactive policy responses. Stakeholders-from industry leaders to policymakers-must work collaboratively to ensure that innovation is both inclusive and sustainable.

In this reimagined landscape of fashtech, the interplay of cultural, social, economic, and symbolic capital-illuminated through Bourdieu’s framework-reveals a complex and dynamic ecosystem. The integration of digital technologies, sustainable practices, and innovative IP management has not only transformed production and consumption but also redefined the very nature of prestige and influence within the fashion industry.

A. Evolution of Capital: Each stage of fashion’s evolution-from traditional haute couture to speculative transhuman designrepresents a shift in how capital is accumulated, utilized, and valued.
B. Digital Transformation: Technologies such as AI, blockchain, and VR are not mere tools but catalysts that reshape cultural expertise, expand social networks, redefine economic investments, and alter the symbolism of luxury.
C. Holistic Profitability: The modern fashion enterprise must view intellectual property rights as part of a larger strategic mosaic, where the synergy of multiple capitals drives longterm success.
D. Future Directions: Ethical innovation, decentralized creativity, and the fusion of physical and digital experiences will continue to transform the industry. For both academic inquiry and practical application, a comprehensive understanding of these dynamics is essential.

In closing, this paper argues that the future of fashion hinges on a balanced integration of technological innovation and cultural sensitivity. As brands navigate the rapidly evolving landscape, the fusion of legal, sociocultural, and technological strategies will be key to fostering resilience and sustainability. The reconfigured interplay of capitals offers both challenges and opportunitiesdemanding that scholars, designers, and industry leaders rethink established paradigms and embrace a more inclusive and dynamic vision of fashion’s future.

This research was funded in whole by the National Science Centre in Poland, grant “Brand Abuse: Brand as a New Personal Interest under the Polish Civil Code against an EU and US Backdrop”, grant holder: Marlena Maria Jankowska-Augustyn, number: 2021/43/B/HS5/01156. For the purpose of Open Access, the author has applied a CC-BY public copyright licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript (AAM) version arising from this submission.

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