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Examines in Marine Biology & Oceanography

On the Status of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta Linnaeus, 1758) (Reptilia: Testudines: Cheloniidae) in the Gaza Strip, Palestine

Abdel Fattah N Abd Rabou*

Departments of Biology and Marine Sciences, Islamic University of Gaza, Palestine

*Corresponding author: Abdel Fattah N Abd Rabou, Departments of Biology and Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, Islamic University of Gaza, P. O. Box 108, Gaza Strip, Palestine

Submission: November 28, 2024;Published: January 23, 2025

DOI: 10.31031/EIMBO.2025.07.000665

ISSN 2578-031X
Volume7 Issue 3

Abstract

The Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta Linnaeus, 1758) is found in almost all seas and oceans of the world and is the most common sea turtle species in the Mediterranean. This modest study, the first of its kind locally, aims to shed light on the status of Loggerhead Sea Turtle in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. The current study, which extends from 2005 to 2024, relied on repeated field visits to the Gaza Strip coast (42km), fishing ports, fish markets, zoos, and museums, holding meetings and discussions with relevant parties, following up and reviewing local media reports and social media related to sea turtles, in addition to taking measurements, observations and documentary photographs. The current study recorded, for the first time after a decades-long hiatus, in July 2021, the nesting and hatching of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle on the beach of Rafah in the southern Gaza Strip. Among other sea turtle species, the Loggerhead Sea Turtle has been exploited as food by a small number of Gazans, especially fishermen, and is kept in captivity and/or taxidermied in Gaza zoos and museums, with live or dead specimens often found stranded on the seashore..

In a positive sign, several cases of live specimens of the sea turtles being returned to the sea by the Directorate General of Fisheries in the Ministry of Agriculture or other Gazans were recorded. Local media coverage of sea turtle catch, bycatch, stranding, and reintroduction is good and perhaps promising. The threats facing Loggerhead Sea Turtles in the Gaza Strip are numerous and included fishing gear and bycatch, vessel strikes, harvesting for consumption, marine pollution, marine debris with regard to ingestion and/or entanglement, beach activities, artificial lighting, coastal erosion, and climate change. The study concludes with a recommendation to protect and conserve sea turtles and intensify scientific studies on their ecology and biology in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, as they are endangered creatures worldwide.

Keywords:Loggerhead sea turtle; Caretta caretta; Mediterranean sea; Nesting and hatching; Stranding; Exploitation; Reintroduction to sea; Media coverage; Threats; Gaza strip; Palestine

Introduction

The Mediterranean coastline is about 46,000km long, covering an area of 2.5 million km2, or less than 1% of the total ocean surface. It attracts almost a third of the world’s international tourists every year [1]. It is known as a hot spot of biodiversity, and home to at least six of the world’s seven known species of sea turtles [1]. The most common is the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta), followed by the Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas) and the Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), known as the largest turtle in the world. A limited number of the Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys kempii), and the Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) have been observed in the Mediterranean Sea. Of those mentioned, the Loggerhead and the Green Turtles are common breeders in the region [1-3]. Sea turtles feed primarily on seagrass, jellyfish, sponges, soft corals, mollusks, crabs, squid, and fish. The Green Sea Turtle is a herbivore when it reaches adulthood, and its diet consists mainly of seagrass and algae [2]. Almost all sea turtle species are considered endangered - they range from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List (Table 1); [4].

Table 1:Sea turtle population status.


The Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta Linnaeus, 1758) of the family Cheloniidae and order Testudines is found in almost all seas and oceans of the world [5]. It is the world’s second largest extant turtle after the Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) [6]. It spends most of its life in saltwater and riverine habitats, with females coming ashore briefly to lay eggs [2]. The Loggerhead Sea Turtle has a low reproductive rate, because females lay eggs and then become inactive and do not produce any eggs for two to three years, and the turtle reaches sexual maturity at a late age, perhaps over 25 years [7]. The Loggerhead Sea Turtle is primarily a carnivore (flesh-feeder) and feeds mostly on shelled invertebrates that live on the sea floor, and its powerful jaw muscles help it crush shellfish with ease. It is classified as a vulnerable species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [2].

Threats to this species and other sea turtle species include fishing gear, bycatch (unintentional capture of non-targeted species during fishing operations), intentional killing and exploitation, vessel strikes or boat collisions, ocean pollution and marine debris, loss of nesting habitat, predation on nests and young, introduction of exotic predators, human disturbance including coastal lighting and habitat development that disturbs turtles as they emerge, and climate change [1,3,5,8]. With regard to marine debris, Casale et al. [9] stated that sea turtles may swallow plastic bags and other debris that they may mistake for prey, such as jellyfish, and suffocate and die. Of course, efforts to restore their numbers require international cooperation because turtles roam vast areas of the world’s oceans, and beaches vital to their nesting are found in many countries.

A large number of scientific studies have addressed the status of Loggerhead Sea Turtles and their biological and ecological aspects worldwide, and many important studies in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean have contributed to enriching this topic [7,10,11-34]. Scientific studies on Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta Linnaeus, 1758) in the occupied Palestinian territories appeared to be scarce. Some Palestinian studies [35-37] have indicated the presence of three species of sea turtles in the Mediterranean waters of the Gaza Strip; namely, the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta), the Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas), and the Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea); with the Loggerhead Sea Turtle is the most abundant species. According to reports of Euroconsult and IWACO [38] and MEnA [39], the nesting activity of these sea turtles on the Mediterranean coast of the Gaza Strip seemed questionable. However, cases of strandings and bycatches have been recorded in certain circumstances along the 42km long coast of the Gaza Strip as pointed out and confirmed by Abd Rabou et al. [40] and Abd Rabou [35]. Accordingly, the present study aims to shed light on the status of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta Linnaeus, 1758) in the Gaza Strip, Palestine. The importance of this work stems from the fact that it is the first study that addresses some descriptive details about this species of sea turtle in the occupied Palestinian territories.

Methodology

The gaza strip

Figure 1:A map showing the geographic position of the Gaza Strip in Palestine.


The Gaza Strip (31˚25’N, 34˚20’E) is an arid to semi-arid strip of Palestinian territory along the Southeastern Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1), covering an area of 365km2 [39]. The current population exceeds 2.3 million, the majority of whom are refugees registered with the United Nations, making the Gaza Strip one of the most densely populated places in the world [41]. The length of the Palestinian coast in the Gaza Strip on the Mediterranean Sea is about 42km, and the Rashid Coastal Road extending from the north of the Gaza Strip to its south is between 10 and 150 meters from the coast, depending on the geographical area it passes through, which means that the Gaza beach opposite the Mediterranean Sea is not wide, which may represent an obstacle to the reproduction of sea turtles. The Gaza Strip beach is also full of permanent and temporary facilities, chalets, rest houses, cafeterias, etc., most of which are lit, which constitutes another obstacle to the reproduction of sea turtles. In the summer, the coastal environment of the Mediterranean Sea in the Gaza Strip is crowded with swimmers, vacationers and rest-takers, many of whom are exposed to stings from jellyfish of various shapes and dangers. The Gaza Strip has at least 3500 fishermen working on more than 1000 fishing vessels of different sizes, shapes and capacities. The accessibility and exploitation of Gazan fishermen to the fluctuating fishing area are often governed by the Israeli occupation. The total production of fisheries resources is 3,500–4,000 tons per year [42]. The Directorate General of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, is the competent, responsible, and authorized authority to ensure the maximum utilization of fishery resources in the Palestinian Territories.

Procedure

The current study relies on a descriptive and cumulative approach to obtaining information, extending over a period of 20 years starting from 2005 to 2024. During this long period of time, repeated field visits and ecological trips were made by the author and his university students studying vertebrate and invertebrate zoology, ecology, biodiversity, marine biology and oceanography, to hotspots along the 42km coast of the Gaza Strip. Special visits were also made to the fishing ports in the Gaza Strip and the fish markets (Dalalah Market or Al-Hisba) in an attempt to investigate various marine organisms including sea turtles. Meetings and discussions were held with relevant parties or stakeholders, including employees of the Directorate General of Fisheries in the Ministry of Agriculture, Gazan fishermen, and some of the Gazan public on the beach to fill the necessary gaps in collecting data related to sea turtle sightings, strandings, captures, and bycatch. In addition, the author tracked and reviewed local media reports and social media related to sea turtles. On many occasions, the author was contacted by fishermen or other Gazans via mobile phones or social media, including WhatsApp and Facebook, to inquire about the species of sea turtles they encountered at sea or on the beach, whether alive or dead. Sometimes they were photographed and their photos were sent as well. Under certain conditions, the author was able to take approximate measurements and observations available on some of the specimens he encountered (Figure 2). Finally, digital cameras were used throughout the study to take photographs for documentation and verification purposes.

Results

Description of loggerhead sea turtle

The Loggerhead Sea Turtle is a relatively common species in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, compared to other sea turtle species. As a result, catch, bycatch and strandings of this species have been reported frequently. Through repeated observation of the hatchings, juvenile, sub-adult and adult stages of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle in different areas within the Gaza Strip, it can be assumed that this species got its name from its large or massive head, which supports strong jaw muscles that enable it to feed on hard-shelled prey. Unlike freshwater terrapin and tortoise species, and like other species of sea turtles known in the Gaza Strip, the species cannot retract its head or flippers into its shell. The shell of the species consists of two parts, the upper half is called the “carapace”, and the lower part is called the “plastron”. The carapace is slightly heart-shaped and reddish-brown in adults and sub-adults, while the plastron is generally pale yellow. Hatchlings have light to dark gray or brown shells. The carapace length of stranded Loggerhead Sea Turtles, as measured, is 70 to 100cm, and adult turtles are estimated to weigh 60 to over 100kg. The forelimbs (front flippers) of loggerhead sea turtles are long, narrow, and often wing-like, while their hindlimbs (rear flippers) are shorter (Figure 2). Adult males clearly have longer tails than females. Most stranded cases in the Gaza Strip were found with epibionts such as algae, stalked or sessile barnacles (Cirripedia: Arthropoda), bivalves (Mollusca), tubes of polychaetes (Annelida), etc., growing on their shells (Figure 2).

Figure 2:The author visited a dead specimen of a loggerhead sea turtle, having a carapace length of 83cm, stranded on the beach of Gaza City in 2022 to collect the necessary data.


Loggerhead sea turtle nesting in the Gaza strip

The Loggerhead Sea Turtle and other sea turtle species have not been recorded nesting in the Gaza Strip during the past two or three decades, and there were doubts about their nesting before that. On July 13, 2021, a rare and unique event was recorded for the first time when a female Loggerhead Sea Turtle nested and hatched on the beach of Rafah Governorate, south of the Gaza Strip, where more than 100 hatchlings (baby turtles) were found scattered on the beach (Figure 3), with only a very few able to reach the sea safely. The researcher’ visit to the place revealed that the nesting and hatching area is located about five kilometers north of the Egyptian border with the Gaza Strip. Some of those interviewed explained that the nesting most likely occurred during the holy month of Ramadan, during which Gazans refrain from going to the sea and its beach due to fasting and worship. The 2021 Israeli war on the Gaza Strip also broke out at that time, along with the outbreak of the COVID-19, which reduced Gazans’ visits to the beach for fear of crowding that might expose them to this terrifying pandemic that has killed tens of Palestinians. In fact, some Facebook activists explained that in recent years they had seen small numbers of newly hatched turtles heading towards the sea, and some of them were caught in specific areas on the Gaza Strip coast, especially north Gaza, which may mean that other nesting and hatching operations were taking place, but they were not scientifically recorded.

Figure 3:Hatchlings of a Loggerhead Sea Turtle spread out on the beach of Rafah, southern Gaza Strip, in July 2021.


Strandings of live and dead loggerhead sea turtles

Loggerhead Sea Turtles are the most common sea turtle species found stranded, either dead or alive, in the Gaza Strip. In fact, the study found no significant difference in Loggerhead Sea Turtle strandings by season, although they are somewhat more common in the summer. On several occasions, Loggerhead Sea Turtle specimens with shell or carapace lengths ranging from 70 to 100cm have been found along the coast. Often, dead, intact, or decomposed specimens are recorded with foul odors emanating from decomposing specimens or those that have been stuck for several days, as they are often buried under beach sand or thrown into landfills by municipal vehicles. Figure 4 shows a number of dead Loggerhead Sea Turtles, either intact or decomposed, that stranded along the Gaza Strip beach with the year of stranding clearly identified. Gazan fishermen, employees of the Directorate General of Fisheries at the Ministry of Agriculture, and some academics believe that the dead sea turtles that washed up on the beaches died from diseases or injuries resulting from collisions with ships and fishing boats, or from being shot, or from eating plastic bags, plastic bottle caps, and other small, solid pieces of plastic. They do not hide the danger of turtles becoming entangled in plastic wastes and damaged or abandoned fishing nets at sea, as they wrap around their necks, flippers and the rest of their bodies, causing them to become sick or suffocate, which eventually leads to death.

Figure 4:Selected specimens of dead Loggerhead Sea Turtles stranded on the beach of the Gaza Strip.


Loggerhead sea turtles at Gaza zoos and museums

Globally, zoos aim to entertain and educate people about wildlife and domesticated animals, in addition to other benefits. These zoos are especially important in the Gaza Strip because of the severe suffering of the Gazans from the crimes and violations of the Israeli occupation in Palestine. Since some private zoos opened their doors to the Palestinian public in the Gaza Strip after 2006, some sea turtles, especially Loggerhead Sea Turtles, were purchased and introduced into small ponds or fountains inside them (Figure 5). Most of the time, these turtles did not survive long due to poor captivity and lack of proper food and care, and as a result, they died, and some of them were dry mummified inside the zoos (Figure 6). In the same vein, some Palestinian universities of the Gaza Strip include in their biological museums stuffed specimens of newly hatched or young sea turtles. In addition, it was found that some pet or wild animal exhibitions held in some cities of the Gaza Strip for the purpose of entertaining children and adults included among their exhibits live or stuffed specimens of Loggerhead Sea Turtles.

Figure 5:A loggerhead sea turtle sits inside a wire cage containing a small pond that houses it at a zoo in the Gaza Strip.


Figure 6:A storeroom at a Gaza zoo contained a stuffed sea turtle after its inevitable death due to poor care.


Trade in loggerhead sea turtles

Sea turtle trade is a global phenomenon that threatens these endangered marine creatures. In the Gaza Strip, the trade is limited to the meat of adult individuals. Some fishermen in Gaza catch sea turtles to sell them to the public in the fish markets in Gaza City or elsewhere. Since Loggerhead Sea Turtles are the most widespread in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, they are also the most vulnerable to capture by fishermen and trafficking. During his field visits to the central fish market known as Al-Hisba in Gaza City and some other markets in the Gaza Strip, the researcher noticed a small number of these sea turtles for sale. Some of the captured sea turtles were sold to local private zoos at very low prices. Some of the captured sea turtles were sold to local private zoos at very low prices. Some of the captured sea turtles were sold to local private zoos at very low prices. In some markets and pet shops, newly hatched or young sea turtles were sold, often displayed in metal or plastic containers filled with water (Figure 7). The researcher observed one of these displayed turtles being sold for just $15 to a Gazan who was fond of keeping animals in his home. In some junk or antique shops in Gaza City, some carapaces of Loggerhead or Green Sea Turtles were found for sale, as these bowls are mostly used as decorations inside Gazan homes.

Figure 7:Newly hatched or juvenile sea turtles displayed in containers filled with water for sale in 2021.


Direct exploitation of loggerhead sea turtles

Some species of sea turtles, especially the Loggerhead Sea Turtles which are the most common in the local marine ecosystem, are caught in the Gaza Strip and sold in the fish markets in Gaza City or the Palestinian refugee camps for slaughter, cooking and eating. Some Gazans, a small minority, consider them delicious seafood and buy them for this purpose. Some Gazan fishermen reported that in some cases they catch sea turtles to slaughter and eat them during their group trips to the beach. It is an old and relatively rare custom for some Gazans to buy sea turtles for purposes other than food, including obtaining turtle carapaces to use as beds for newborns or using their blood to stimulate sexual desire, as some have claimed. Although sea turtle eggs are very delicious in many Arab and foreign societies, they are not consumed in the Gaza Strip because sea turtle nesting is very rare.

Local media coverage of stranded loggerhead sea turtles

Palestinian visual, audio and print media compete to cover news and reports about giant sea turtles, especially the Loggerhead Sea Turtle, which is the most widespread sea turtle in the Palestinian marine environment, and the most frequently stranded on the 42km long Gaza Strip beach. These media outlets often publish photos and perhaps video clips of these creatures, describing them as huge, strange and deserving of media attention. Many media outlets conduct interviews with those who find them, or employees of the Directorate General of Fisheries in the Ministry of Agriculture, or academics in Palestinian universities, in the hope of clarifying their nature, the reasons for their capture or stranding, and the threats they face locally and globally. There have been many news headlines about finding sea turtles in the Gaza Strip, as follows:
a. A large turtle was found on the beaches of the Gaza Sea (https://www.wattan.net. August 30, 2013).
b. A rare species in the world: Gaza beach receives a huge dead sea turtle (https://www.alwatanvoice.com. May 18, 2014).
c. Large turtles washed up on Gaza beaches (https://www.hr.ps. February 21, 2015).
d. It seems that the occupation shot her... A huge sea turtle was found off the coast of Gaza (https://www.alhadath.ps. August 27, 2016).
e. Waves throw a huge turtle onto the beach of Rafah (https:// qudsnet.com. April 21, 2019).

Reintroducing sea turtles to the marine environment of the Gaza Strip: A positive sign

In a positive initiative in the Gaza Strip, many Gazans and fishermen have returned sea turtles that were caught or incidentally caught in fishing gear to the marine ecosystem because of their belief in the threats facing these creatures. On September 11, 2014, a citizen from the Nuseirat camp in the middle of the Gaza Strip contacted the researcher and told him that he had bought a live specimen of the Loggerhead Sea Turtle for $15 from the market to protect it from being slaughtered and eaten. Indeed, the turtle was examined by the researcher and was in good health, as he kept it in a safe place on the roof of his multi-story house (Figure 8A). The citizen himself returned it to its marine environment, aware of the threats facing these creatures locally and globally. In a second event taken place in 2014, employees of the Directorate General of Fisheries at the Ministry of Agriculture returned a number of sea turtles to the marine environment in the Gaza Strip after confiscating them from fishermen (Figure 8B). In addition, a young man bought a small specimen of a sea turtle from a fisherman with the aim of releasing it into the marine environment of the Gaza Strip in order to maintain the marine ecological balance. The young man rented a small boat to reach the open sea, and then released it to live a happy life in its natural environment (Figure 8C). He documented this unique phenomenon in a short video.

Figure 8:Efforts to return captured sea turtles to the sea: (a) The researcher examining a Loggerhead Sea Turtle before its owner returning it to the sea in 2014, (b) Employees from the Directorate General of Fisheries at the Ministry of Agriculture returning a Loggerhead Sea Turtle to the sea in 2014, (c) A young man releases a young sea turtle into the open sea in 2021.


Threats facing loggerhead sea turtles in the Gaza strip

Sea turtles are widely distributed, living in almost all of the world’s oceans, and are therefore exposed to a wide range of risks and threats. In the Gaza Strip, despite its very small area (365km2) and limited coast (42km) on the Mediterranean Sea, there are several threats facing Loggerhead Sea Turtles, which will be addressed as follows:
a) Fishing gear and bycatch: Fishing gear (fishing tackle or fishing equipment) is defined as the tools used to catch marine resources. Bony, cartilaginous and invertebrate fish are among the most commonly harvested resources by fishing gear in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip. Examples include surrounding nets, trawl nets, gillnets, longlines, hooks and lines, etc. In particular, bycatch (unintentional capture of non-targeted species during fishing operations) poses a major threat to sea turtles. A large number of sea turtle species (Loggerhead, Green, and Leatherback Sea Turtles) being accidentally caught and dying every year in the Gaza Strip as a result of being caught in gillnets, trawls, longlines, and other gear forms. Since Loggerhead Sea Turtles are the most widespread in the Mediterranean, they are also the most vulnerable to fishing in the Gaza Strip. Figure 9 shows Gazan fishermen rescuing a live Loggerhead Sea Turtle that was accidentally entangled in fishing gear.

Figure 9:Rescue of a live Loggerhead sea turtle accidentally caught in fishing nets in the Gaza Strip.


b) Vessel strikes or boat collisions: Marine traffic by various types of marine vehicles and boats poses a major threat to endangered sea turtles, especially those living on or near the surface, where they are vulnerable to ship and boat strikes, resulting in injury or death. In fact, it is not unlikely that many sea turtles, especially Loggerhead Sea Turtles, that wash up on the shores of the Gaza Strip and are injured or dead may have been hit by Gazan boats or Israeli naval boats deployed in the open sea and near the Gaza coast for security reasons, as they claim. For information purposes only, local fishing vessels or boats consist of six types: Trawlers (gar), large purse seiners (shanshula), small purse seiners (shanshula), hasakas with motor (Figure 10), feluccas, and hasakas with oars. Some of these boats are used locally for tourism purposes, sailing limited distances at sea to enrich the knowledge of Gazans about their marine environment, and bring them pleasure, entertainment and psychological comfort.

Figure 10:The hasaka with motor is one of the most common Gazan boats that can collide with sea turtles, causing them harm.


c) Direct exploitation of sea turtles (harvest for consumption): In fact, it is not very common for Gazans to eat sea turtle eggs and meat due to the rarity of nesting of these reptiles on the Gaza Strip beaches. On the other hand, some Gazans, especially fishermen, may catch sea turtles or use what is by-caught in their fishing gear to eat them, and sometimes obtain their carapaces for decorative purposes. Some local media reported that few sea turtles are consumed for their meat, especially in light of the blockade imposed on the Gaza Strip since 2007 and the wars waged by Israel from time to time.

d) Marine pollution: In general, marine pollution can have serious effects on sea turtle species. When pollutants enter marine waters, they can contaminate and kill aquatic plants and animals that are often food for sea turtles. Most of the wastewater produced in the Gaza Strip is discharged into the marine environment, carrying solid waste, toxins, and other materials. Plastic and nylon waste can contribute to the death of turtles, and some toxins can accumulate and enter the food chains that sea turtles may be part of.

e) Marine debris: Ingestion and/or Entanglement: Although this problem has not been scientifically investigated in the Gaza Strip, it is believed that several species of sea turtles including the Loggerhead Sea Turtle are killed each year by plastic debris that reaches the Mediterranean Sea from the Gaza Strip’s terrestrial environment, which is full of solid waste and possibly from local fishing boats. Sea turtles may swallow these materials or plastic bags by mistake, mistaking them for jellyfish and becoming sick or suffocating and dying. Sea turtles may also become entangled in marine debris from abandoned or lost fishing gear and other types of plastic wastes and ropes, also causing their death.

f) Beach activities: The extensive human use of the Gaza Strip beaches, such as the construction of rest houses, huts, pergolas, and boat building, as well as the spread of domesticated animals (Camels, horses, donkeys, dogs, cats, etc.) and means of transportation, may have negative effects on sea turtles that may build nests, hatch their eggs, and produce their young. The increased human presence on the beach disturbs the females that build their nests and may cause sea turtles to stop coming to the beach and stop nesting. In fact, there are doubts about sea turtles nesting on the Gaza Strip beach, and if nesting occurs, it is rare due to the circumstances of the Gazans who consider the beach their only outlet in light of the Israeli occupation, siege, and wars imposed on the entire Gaza Strip.

g) Artificial lighting: Although Loggerhead Sea Turtle nesting is rare on the beaches of the Gaza Strip, as mentioned earlier, due to tourism activity, coastal development and the accompanying artificial lighting, this may discourage female sea turtles from nesting, which prefer to build their nests on quiet, dark beaches to reproduce successfully. Even if nesting is assumed to be successful on Gaza beaches, artificial lighting close to the beaches confuses the young sea turtles when they hatch from their eggs, and instead of heading towards the sea, they may lose their way and head towards land, where they are exposed to death for several reasons, including drought, predators and perhaps being run over on Rashid Coastal Street, which is crowded with various means of transportation.

h) Climate change and coastal erosion: Climate change is a global environmental issue, and for endangered sea turtles, climate change is affecting the beaches where they nest. Melting polar ice caps, combined with rising sea levels and expected stronger storms, are eroding and shrinking the beaches where sea turtles may nest. In fact, coastal erosion is a growing problem on the Gaza Strip coast, particularly in the Shati refugee camp and near the ports and sea groins that stretch along the 42km long coastline, with a disastrous impact on the local marine and coastal environment, and sea turtles are no exception.

Discussion

The descriptions provided by the results of the current study are of course clearly similar to the information provided by several international and regional publications in terms of size, shape, color, and other aspects [2,3,5,6,11,17,43-49]. Most fishermen and many segments of Gazan society cannot clearly distinguish between the species of sea turtles that live in the marine ecosystem or that strand on the beach. Not only that, but even the various media outlets always talk about strange sea organisms or huge turtles that invade the marine waters of the Gaza Strip or are thrown by the waves onto the beaches, whether alive or dead. In scientific exhibitions held outside educational institutions or even in zoos that may bring live specimens of sea turtles, they only know that they are marine or aquatic turtles and do not mention anything about their common English or scientific Latin names. For this and other scientific reasons, this study came to shed light on the Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta). It will be followed by other studies on the two other species, which are certainly less common in the marine waters of the Gaza Strip, and therefore are less caught, bycaught or stranded in the Gaza Strip. Identifying the three species in the Mediterranean waters of the Gaza Strip would pave the way for identifying other visiting species that may be seen, caught or even stranded on the shores of the Gaza Strip in the future. However, this does not seem unlikely given that the Mediterranean Sea is known to harbor a limited number of sea turtle species [1,50-53] other than those previously recorded in the Gaza Strip [36,37].

The study showed some of the animals or algae that may grow on the bowls of the loggerhead sea turtles, which is mentioned and confirmed by many scientific studies targeting sea turtles in general and loggerhead sea turtles in particular. The most important of these epifauna are barnacles that take solid bodies in the open sea as a ground for attachment and living, as they are sessile arthropods. Casale et al. [54] and Collareta et al. [55] pointed out that sea turtles play as basibionts and exhibit a wide and diverse range of epibiotic symbionts, including the turtle barnacles (Cirripedia). Colonization by barnacles can negatively impact sea turtle health, particularly by increasing the hydrodynamic drag and body weight of host turtles [56]. Healthy turtles can usually overcome this type of burden, but sick turtles often experience a decrease in active behaviors (i.e., swimming and self-grooming), which can lead to increased barnacle loads [57].

Although nesting and hatching of sea turtles have not been recorded in the Gaza Strip during the past two or three decades as assumed by elderly fishermen (Personal Communications) and old local reports [38,39], the present study confirms for the first time the return of such nesting and hatching of Loggerhead Sea Turtles. Such nesting and hatching activities seem difficult or rare in the Gaza Strip, which suffers from Israeli occupation, blockade, overcrowding and high population density, in addition to the small length and width of the beach, the random and intensive human exploitation of the beach, and widespread marine pollution. Other areas in the Mediterranean basin, with long coastlines, are known to provide probable suitable habitats for Loggerhead Sea Turtle nesting and hatching. These coastal countries include Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Egypt, Libya and Tunisia, as can be inferred from various studies [5,24,26,29,31,58-66].

The majority of sea turtles that stranded during the succeeding stages of this study were Loggerhead Sea Turtles. The frequency of strandings of these turtles over the seasons; especially summer indicates the almost permanent presence of this species in Palestinian coastal waters. The study indicated that most beach strandings in the Gaza Strip were of dead turtles, and the high mortality rate may be due to the interaction of sea turtles with local fishing gear having high bycatch rates such as various nets, and it may sometimes be related to turtles colliding with fishing boats of different sizes and shapes. Most of the strandings were recorded for adult specimens with carapace lengths exceeding 70cm, which of course may indicate that adult turtles, which feed mainly in coastal areas where their food is abundant, consisting of shell-fish invertebrate and jellyfish, may be incidentally caught in fishing nets used in coastal waters, as the Israeli occupation prohibits fishing at long distances from the shores for alleged security reasons. Injuries to some Loggerhead Sea Turtles and possibly other species such as Green and Leatherback Sea Turtles suggest that they may have been deliberately killed by fishermen when they were incidentally caught in fishing nets or struck by fishing boats or vessels. Similar explanations were proposed by Belmahi et al. [8] who found that sea turtle strandings were the result of bycatch by artisanal fisheries, followed by boat collisions. Although Loggerhead Sea Turtle strandings occur throughout the year as was confirmed by Báez et al. [67], they are somewhat more common in the summer and may be explained by increased fishing activity in the summer. These data may be consistent with the observations of Jribi et al. [68,69] in Tunisia, Tomás et al. [70] in Spain, and Belmahi et al. [8] in Algeria.

Sea turtles are one of the most attractive aquatic species to see in zoos and museums worldwide. In fact, it is a good sign for such institutions to have captive sea turtles, endangered species, in aquariums (aquaria) that provide all the environmental and living requirements for these truly lovable sea creatures [71]. The museums in Alexandria and Hurghada in Egypt housed live specimens of sea turtles, especially Loggerhead Sea Turtles, in their aquariums, which were extremely beautiful and attracted many visitors (Personal Observations). Because they are private, poor and poorly managed, Gaza zoos lack the aquariums found in many international or regional zoos and museums. Captive turtles at Gaza zoos do not live long, lacking survival factors such as food, veterinary care, space and deep seawater pools in which they can move freely. The pools at Gaza zoos are small, shallow and contain fresh water, not seawater. Due to their difficult administrative and professional reality that cannot accommodate many forms of wildlife, including sea turtles, Gaza zoos have never been required to provide rescue, veterinary care, rehabilitation and release back into the wild services for sea turtles as is the case in reserves, rescue centers and zoos in many countries [72-75], and they will never be able to do so..

The trade in sea turtles, especially Loggerhead Sea Turtles, is not large and does not generate much interest. Live sea turtles that are caught, by-caught, or washed up on the beach are sometimes sold for their meat, although this is not common, or sold for display in zoos and perhaps small museums, or a few, especially young individuals, are sold in markets to those interested in wildlife raising. Globally, Green and Hawksbill Sea Turtles are prized reptiles for their meat, shells and skins, some of which are used commercially for sculptures, jewelry and furniture inlays [76]. In Egypt, a country closer to Palestine, there has been a market trade in a variety of sea turtle species, including Loggerhead Sea Turtles, for human consumption and this trade is a major concern [10,77- 81]. Trade in sea turtles for consumption or other uses has also been reported in various countries around the world [82-89].

The role of the media in knowledge, conservation and protection of wildlife in general is clear in the Palestinian environment, and may be promising. Since sea turtles of all species are endangered globally, the role of official and unofficial media and social media platforms becomes desirable and necessary to limit the pursuit and capture of these marine creatures, or even to release them back into the marine environment after being by-caught or stranded. Globally, there are many studies that show the importance of media in all its forms in raising people’s awareness of respecting sea turtles and preserving them in a sustainable fashion [90-93]. This media coverage has encouraged many Gazans to return their lucky sea turtles to their natural habitat in the Mediterranean (Figure 8C), which is of course a positive and promising sign towards the conservation of sea turtles in the Gaza Strip regardless of the political, military, social and economic challenges they face under the Israeli occupation, blockade and wars. Such approaches to reintroducing and conserving sea turtles have been adopted worldwide with good results [1,94,95].

The Gaza Strip, which has a coastline on the Mediterranean Sea of 42km, is not isolated from the world’s coastal countries with regard to the threats facing sea turtles, especially Loggerhead Sea Turtles, which are frequently recorded as living or dead specimens in marine waters or on the beach. In fact, bycatch poses a major threat to sea turtles that incidentally fall into various fishing gear, leading to their capture or death. Bycatch by bottom trawl, driftnet, purse seine, and longline fisheries is not a local problem, but a global one that threatens endangered species all over the world. This is evident from the great number of studies that indicate the impact of bycatch on the lives and populations of sea turtles in coastal countries around the world [5,17,20,21,68-70,96-106].

The marine environment designated for fishing in the Gaza Strip is limited in area and determined according to the policies of the Israeli occupation. It is usually rich in different types of fishing boats, the number of which exceeds 1,500 vessels. Not only that, but Israeli warships and boats are usually stationed and patrolling the marine environment in the Gaza Strip, and they are very fast. These Palestinian (and Israeli) boats cause collisions with many large marine creatures, the most important of which are sea turtles, resulting in injuries, death, and stranding. Gazan fishermen have reported injuries they find in these endangered creatures. In fact, the exposure of different species of sea turtles to collisions with fishing boats and marine vehicles of various shapes, sizes and speeds represents an imminent danger to their lives and sustainability in their natural environment, as shown by specialized studies [107-110].

In marine environments contaminated with debris, no one can guarantee the safety of many marine creatures, especially those that are threatened or endangered. Sea turtles are a stark example of how they are directly affected by marine debris, which they may swallow or become entangled in, resulting in diseases, suffocation, death, and strandings. The relatively large number of dying turtles encountered at Gaza beaches may be a direct result of their ingestion of hazardous plastic materials, including nylon bags, which sea turtles may mistake for jellyfish, suffocate upon swallowing, become ill and die as pointed out by recent local studies [36,37]. In the same context, a large number of Gazan fishermen lost many of their fishing tools, such as nets, long lines and hooks, due to the harassment of the Israeli occupation and the bombing of their boats carrying fishing nets from time to time, which makes them part of the marine debris and causes problems for sea turtles. In addition, a few Gazan fishermen have a habit of throwing their damaged or torn nets into the sea, which adds to the disaster itself. All of these incidents contribute to sea turtles becoming entangled in them and then dying. Many international and regional studies seem to agree with these findings regarding the threat posed by marine debris to various species of sea turtles [5,9,111- 118].

Although sea turtle nesting and hatching are rare in the Gaza Strip, as this study noted and artificial lighting associated with coastal development can deter nesting sea turtles (if any) and disrupt hatchlings from heading out to sea after they emerge from the nest. In fact, artificial lighting is one of the problems facing sea turtle reproduction on sandy beaches, and many studies around the world have shown similar trends that threaten sea turtle nesting and hatching [119-123]. In this regard, Price et al. [124] noted that cases of hatchling disorientations occurred more frequently in areas with greater luminance in Florida, USA. Sea turtle nesting habitats will also be affected by multiple impacts of climate change. Impacts include nest site selection and subsequent hatching success of sea turtles [125-127].

The most painful thing on the coasts of the Gaza Strip now is the change in sand deposition patterns and the ongoing erosion processes, which are certainly linked to climate change and anthropogenic activities on the beaches and coasts, which negatively affects the uses of the beaches and threatens coastal roads and existing facilities, as local scientific studies have indicated [128,129]. No local studies have been conducted on the impact of such sand deposits and erosion on endangered marine life, especially sea turtles. In contrast, In contrast, several studies have pointed to changes in coastal morphology due to erosion and sand deposit patterns as having an impact on sea turtle biology and ecology [130-135]. After this tour that focused on the status of Loggerhead Sea Turtles in the Gaza Strip, the current study concludes with strong recommendations for the protection and conservation of globally endangered sea turtles, the need to raise environmental awareness especially among fishermen and not to harm them, and to intensify scientific studies on their biology and ecology in the marine ecosystem of the Gaza Strip, Palestine.

Acknowledgment

I would like to thank the staff of the General Directorate of Fisheries at the Ministry of Agriculture and all the concerned parties, including Gazan fishermen, whom I met and spoke with in the Gaza Strip during the succeeding stages of this study, who provided me with valuable information and technical support that enriched this modest study.

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© 2025 Abdel Fattah N Abd Rabou. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially.

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