Objective: Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD) are the leading causes of mortality in Portugal and globally.
Its prevalence spans several generations and does not choose a gender. Psychological interventions are
carried out to help patients through the adaptation process and are mainly related to emotional and
behavioral management and psychoeducation regarding patients’ lifestyles. We allude to the issue in the
context of cognitive-behavioral intervention, in which the beliefs and meanings of the disease are worked
on to achieve emotional regulation and promote self-care.
Methods: We reviewed the literature that presents the main results of studies published over the last 20
years concerning psychological intervention in adapting to CVD. The databases Science Direct, Taylor &
Francis, Google Scholar, Springer Link, B-on, Pub Med, Scielo and RECAAP were used, using the keywords
“psychological adaptation,” “cardiovascular disease,” “cognitive-behavioral therapy,” “intervention plan,”
and “psychological intervention.” Only Portuguese and English papers were considered. The search was
performed between September 21 and October 21, 2022.
Result: The adaptation process involves helping cardiovascular patients to reduce fear, anxiety, and
depression in response to the necessary changes in their lives. Part of the adaptation to the disease is
also preventive.
Conclusion: The main findings and their practical implications highlight a brief update of research and
their psychosocial determinants in the last 20 years about cardiovascular diseases and the most effective
psychological intervention.
Keywords:Cardiovascular disease; Cognitive behavioral therapy; Review study
Worldwide, Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD) are a significant health issue, affecting the
population of productive age and cooperating to increase the associated costs [1-3]. CVD
is more common among people 65 or older [4], which is explained by the propensity for
atherosclerosis propitiated by aging. However, it progresses gradually with age up to 60 years
in men, while in women, the progression begins after menopause from age 50 [5]. At national
and global levels, CVD remains the leading cause of death and disability in women and the
second leading cause in men [6]. According to the most recent report from the World Health
Organization (WHO), in 2019, an estimated 17.9 million people died from CVDs, accounting
for 32% of all global deaths. Heart attacks and strokes were responsible for 85% of these
deaths (WHO, 2019). In Portugal, the scenario is not different, and CVD is the leading cause
of death and disability, especially in women, and is the second largest cause in men [6]. From
a European perspective, at an economic level, the costs associated with CVDs represent 169
million euros per year [7]. Additionally, 35 billion euros are linked to the loss of productivity,
contributing to 21% of CVD-related costs [7]. From a national perspective, the Portuguese
National Health Service has expenditures of 476 405 361 billion euros with CVD-related
pharmacology and hospitalizations [7] and 1,174 billion euros in 2018, according to the
official site of the European Commission Healthcare costs of CVD and cancer in the European
countries, [8].
Being CVD the world’s leading cause of death, the World Health
Organization (WHO) believes that heart disease will continue to
rise until 2030, the main drive for high mortality and Quality of
life reduction [9]. Despite substantial decreases in mortality from
stroke and ischaemic heart disease over the past two decades, these
remained the two leading causes of death in Portugal in 2018 [6].
Pneumonia and other respiratory diseases like Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD) also accounted for a substantial share
of deaths. Lung and colorectal cancers were the most frequent
causes of death by oncological diseases [6]. The risk factors
for CVD vary according to age, and so we present a sociological
analysis from three distinctive generations, highlighting their
psychosocial determinants of CVD. Given the prevalence of CVD in
the population aged above 45 years, we can reflect on the fact that
three generations are included, the first recognized as the silent
generation (born between 1925-1942), the baby boomers (born
between 1945 and 1964) and generation X (born between 1965
and 1981). We discuss middle and late adulthood [10]. Because
they are responsible for numerous roles and responsibilities in
their personal and professional lives, middle adults sense that
their lives are stable and controlled (Skaff, 2006 [10]). From an
employment perspective, these individuals find themselves at a
stage where they consider themselves more productive than at any
other time [10]. At functional levels, this generation begins to feel
some impacts on the functioning of the heart, and it “begins to pump
slower and irregularly in the 50s” [10]. From the age of 40 or 50, the
emergence of CVD becomes common because arterial walls begin
to thicken and become stiffer since “the declines in cardiovascular
condition are particularly abrupt after the age of 45” (Jackson et al.,
2009,[10]).
In addition to these factors, in middle adulthood, family, money,
and work are the main generators of stress when changes in these
roles occur (Almeida & Horn, 2004,; Almeida et al., 2006, ). The
emergence of CVD represents a stressful factor because it changes
the individual’s roles within the family and at work. Another
aspect that we need to consider is that adults of this generation
tend to be more disposed to psychological distress, namely, to
express sadness, restlessness, or nervousness and therefore
more susceptible to CVD. When it comes to late adulthood, we
can characterize it as a strong and consistent type of personality
that remains under the influence of the environment. The silent
generation, and baby boomers, are very much tied to their work
activity. So, the need to retire or move away from work is a painful
decision, given the emotional repercussions on their financial or
personal situation [10]. Like other pathologies, CVD is influenced
by different risk factors: High systolic blood pressure; Dietary risks,
High LDL cholesterol, Air Pollution, Tobacco; high body-mass index,
High fasting plasma glucose; kidney dysfunction, non-optimal
temperature, Other environmental risks; low physical activity [11].
The European Charter for Heart Health organized these risk factors
into four categories: (a) behavior-modifiable ones, (b) lifestyle, (c)
biological, and (d) non-modifiable ones [7]. In 2019, “68% of the
Portuguese population had two or more risk factors for CVD and
22% four or more of these factors” [12].
It is estimated that 80% of CVD cases are associated with
modifiable risk factors such as living conditions, education, low
income, and working conditions, which means that it is possible
to prevent and control CVD through behavioral changes ([7,13]
Ribeiro et al., 2013 [14]). Regarding the risk factors associated with
the lifestyle of individuals, the highlight is tobacco consumption,
an unbalanced diet, alcohol consumption, and a sedentary lifestyle
[7]. Relying upon sedentary behavior with regular physical activity
allows individuals to reduce blood glycemia and increase HDL
cholesterol, such as heart rate ([15], Leal, 2004). Apart from risk
factors associated with lifestyle, we also have biological factors that
are related to CVD, specifically: (a) blood pressure, (b) blood glucose,
(c) lipids, and (d) excess weight [7]. Although it is fundamental for
the body, when LDL cholesterol occurs at high or low levels of HDL,
it is harmful since it accelerates atherosclerosis and contributes to
a higher probability of myocardial infarctions [16].
Hypertension, in turn, is associated with other risk factors,
such as diabetes and obesity, directly related to the poor eating
habits of individuals (excessive consumption of salt and fats) and
a sedentary lifestyle [17]. On the other hand, we can also refer to
non-modifiable risk factors, which relate to (a) gender, (b) age,
(c) ethnicity, and (d) genetics [7]. Regarding gender, some studies
state that despite the proportional mortality, females develop CVD
about 10 to 15 years later than males [18]. When the COVID-19
pandemic emerged, the presence of the unknown, the uncertainty,
and the mandatory stay-at-home confinement increased stress and
anxiety in the population. After knowing more about the disease, its
transmission, and risk factors, the pandemic also represents a risk
factor for CVD, given its comorbidity [19]. During the pandemic,
many deaths were recorded in cardiovascular patients infected
with the virus, as this comorbidity was assumed to be an increased
risk for death [20,21]. Accordingly, if a subject in a non-pandemic
context acting in the face of disease is already challenging, to do
so with the awareness that the probability of dying, in case of
infection is significant, causes higher levels of anxiety and fear.
The global chronic disease epidemic has indicated an increase in
CVD in the developed and developing world with critical anti-aging
genes repressed that are important to the the survival of these
CVD individuals (A,B,C). We intend to review the main results of
studies published over the last 20 years regarding psychosocial
determinants of CVD and psychological intervention.
The search period was performed between September 21 and
October 21, 2022, in the Science Direct, Taylor & Francis, Google
Scholar, Springer Link, B-on, PubMed, Scielo, and RECAAP databases,
using the keywords: “psychological adaptation,” “cardiovascular
disease,” “cognitive behavioral therapy,” “intervention plan” and
“psychological intervention.” The search was focused on Portuguese
and English written literature published in the last 20 years.
The diagnosis of CVD seems to represent, for the individual,
a rupture in his biopsychosocial balance, revealing the need to
introduce changes in lifestyle and labor activity. The new disease
requirements represent a new reality that imposes the adoption
of healthier behaviors [22-25]. CVD causes suffering for patients
because it is a severe health condition and because of the various
changes in routines and lifestyles, sometimes associated with
depressive and anxious symptoms [22,26]. In the adaptation
stage to CVD, patients are particularly fragile, not only due to the
imminent “threat” of physical death but also to the experience
of what could be described as a symbolic death due to: a loss of
autonomy, diet changes, possible work leave and loss of control
of the situation [27-29]. Each patient develops personal beliefs
about CVD, influencing how he responds to therapy [30]. Coping
strategies act as a buffer between stress-inducing stimuli, health,
and disease when confronted with a disease diagnosis [31]. In this
sense, the same author presents three stages of the coping process:
1. Cognitive assessment, 2. adaptive behaviors, and 3. competencies
[31]. In the phase of cognitive assessment, the patient proceeds to
the evaluation and meaning of the disease, attributing a degree of
severity [31].
After this phase, the patient moves on to the next phase, using
strategies adapted to his condition [31]. The implementation
of coping skills occurs after these phases, chosen based on the
initial evaluation made by the patient and the situation [31]. Thus,
adapting to the pathology will depend on how the diagnosed person
assesses that new circumstance. From a positive point of view, CVD
is considered challenging, while from an opposing point of view,
the disease is experienced as a threat [32]. The latter can lead to
an attitude of acceptance-resignation, while the first relates to a
sense of capacity to face the disease [32]. Moreover, there are two
types of confrontation: acceptance-resignation and acceptancerenunciation.
The first, as previously stated, is beneficial for
adapting to CVD. In the case of coping renunciation, this is
considered harmful to this process because it can be associated
with negative behavior toward health, lower resilience, and delays
in asking for help [33-35].
It is essential to consider that CVD is a disease that affects the
vascular system and the heart, and societies universally perceive
it as the center of emotions and life [22]. Accordingly, when
an individual receives the news that his vital organ is sick, this
mystification of the heart may influence adapting to it, as it may
generate anxiety and fear [22]. According to previous research,
psychosocial adaptation to CVD has three phases [36]. The first
phase is adaptation, in which the person can accept the disease
and everything it entails, together with a good restructuring of his
life at the professional, personal, and social levels [31]. The second
phase corresponds to the impulsive reaction associated with denial
[31]. The third phase of psychosocial adaptation is the regressive
one, recognized as one in which the individual cannot overcome
fear and succumbs to it, giving rise to a feeling of incapacity and
moving away from activities that used to give him pleasure [31].
The reactions of these last phases are ineffective for adapting the
individual to his condition, distancing him from strategies that
promote changes and benefit his health [31,37]. In assessing the
efficacy of an intervention program with patients who have suffered
an Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS), Fernandes [31], they have
concluded that the occurrence of this CVD unexpectedly affects the
life of the patient and his family [25,31,38,39].
The patient’s most common symptoms are fear, anxiety, anger,
and depression [38,40]. When the patient tries to manage the
situation adaptively, feelings of impotence and disorganization
are common because it is a new reality with which the individual
does not have the knowledge and strategies to deal [31]. Moreover,
anxiety or depression does not contribute to adopting effective
adaptive strategies [38,41,42]. In this sense, adjustment is necessary
at various levels, namely at the social level, professional, emotional,
familiar, and behavioral [31]. When a patient is depressed,
adaptation will undoubtedly be more challenging because he
will present a posture of disinterest lack of initiative, and the
affective/emotional level will be unstable [31]. From a behavioral
perspective, a solution for this problem could be strategies for
preventing risk factors [37,43]. Thus, the individual’s depression
response to his pathology could become a risk factor since CVD
impacts generations of productive age, such as baby boomers and
Generation X. CVD significantly impacts a population that has a
strong connection with work from an early age. For this reason,
when disease arises at this age, adaptation will require effective
coping strategies because labor interruption is sometimes not
processed adaptively for financial reasons and impacts the patient’s
identity [44,45]. For these generations, the emergence of disease
could signify the need to stop producing, which has repercussions
on feelings of helplessness, a threat to their livelihood, and, in some
cases, shame for their inactivity [22,46].
Psychology intervention and adaptation to disease
The advent of an illness in someone’s life could indicate a
crisis. Thus, the psychologist’s work may be necessary at this time
to help restore the individual’s health, allowing him to balance
and cope with his contingencies (Bornho, 2016, [22,47,48]). The
great purpose of the psychologist’s work is to lead the individual
to reestablish his well-being, reduce anxiety and anguish, and
encourage emotional expression [22,49,50]. Psychologists can
assist the patient in the meaning of the symptoms and consequent
expression of their suffering [48]. In addition, it is also essential to
work with family members to facilitate interfamily communication
and good interaction between them so that they express what
they feel during the adaptation process [48]. It is critical to
underline that during the psychological intervention process, the
client is assured that he is the “subject of his life, not the object of
study” [48]. Literature reports three performance levels for the
psychologist: the first is psychoeducation, the second is prevention,
and the third is psychotherapy [47]. The first level focuses on a
more educational perspective where information is transmitted
to help the patient reduce stress [22]. It consists of presenting
strategies the patient can use to face his CVD and adapt them to his
needs [22,51]. At the prevention level, the psychologist’s action is
directed to a prophylactic intervention where the disease is not yet
causing psychological damage [22]. When working with the patient
and his family, the main objective is to help reduce the emotional
consequences that a CVD causes, namely uncertainty, and promote
strategies that are effective and appropriate for his life context
(Alvarez et al. 2006 [31,52]).
In collaboration with the multidisciplinary team, the cardiac
rehabilitation process allows the patient to achieve psychological
and physical health through specific activities [9,53]. This
multidisciplinary team comprises cardiologists, physiotherapists,
nurses, nutritionists, psychologists, and social workers. The
cardiologist assumes the function of indicating the patient to the
intervention program and providing discharge. Physical therapists
are responsible for exercise programs, supervising, assisting,
and advising patients. As for nurses, they are responsible for
the educational component of the disease and monitoring of
cardiovascular risk factors. The nutritionist elaborates with the
patient a dietary plan appropriate to his condition. Nevertheless,
psychologists and psychiatrists seek to “assist psychological
problems and stress management to facilitate behavioral changes
and assess cognitive changes” [53].
Finally, social workers assist patients in seeking or reintegrating
them into work in a way appropriate to their health condition [53].
Without this multidisciplinary team, the rehabilitation process
would be poor since all specialties are essential for the patient.
Before starting the intervention, it is essential to understand
whether the nature of the patient’s behavior is reactive or a
structural trait because this information determines the plan’s
orientation and definition of the most appropriate strategies
[49]. The process of psychosocial intervention in CVD involves
changes in various aspects of the cardiovascular patient’s routine
and lifestyle, particularly the adoption of healthy behaviors
such as physical exercise, dietary changes, and the cessation of
risk behaviors such as alcohol and tobacco consumption [31]. It
is critical to provide options for coping with the psychological
impacts of CVD that do not rely on pharmacological [31,54]. One
example is the use of physical and aerobic exercises that prove to
be as effective as pharmacological treatment and are assumed to
be more sustainable given their low cost and promotion of selfcare
[55,56]. According to the literature, the intervention can be
individual or group. When performed individually, there are focuses
of intervention, such as the emotional state, the family structure,
stressor events, the social support network, coping strategies, and
self-esteem (the psychosocial factors;[57]). In a group, the aim is to
instill the resources and perception of control of the pathology so
individuals can face it adaptively [31]. The group modality could be
beneficial since individuals may share their fears about CVD and
prepare emotional space for interpersonal support [31].
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) was the first method
of psychotherapy presented by scientific literature as effective
for intervention with cardiovascular patients [58]. It has a
simple methodology, quick initiation, and short duration and is
characterized as holistic by addressing aspects that drug therapy
cannot respond to [59]. Still, despite brief intervention, the results
can be maintained beyond the intervention period [60]. CBT
sessions with cardiovascular patients are given by psychologists
working in a multidisciplinary context, together with a team of
nurses and cardiologists, physiotherapists, social workers and
nutritionists [61]. The intervention can be performed individually,
online or in groups [62-64]. Individual or group therapy is the most
commonly employed modality with cardiovascular patients, and
as previously indicated, the latter fosters peer support, confirming
the intervention’s outcomes [59,65]. Hence, CBT strives to support
patients in reducing psychological distress and increasing adaptive
behaviors by encouraging pleasure activities, promoting social
interactions, confronting self-critical and reshaping negative
thoughts [66,67]. Cognitive and behavioral strategies include
exercises of relaxation, cognitive restructuring, emotional
regulation, and problem-solving [66]. The cognitive principle is that
“emotional and behavioral responses, as well as our motivation, are
not directly influenced by situations, but [...], by the interpretations
we make of these situations or by the meaning we attribute to
them” [68]. In turn, the patient’s meanings of his disease represent
automatic thoughts that eventually activate his system of beliefs
and schemes [68]. In this process, coping strategies focused on the
problem or emotions prepare the subject to deal with his stress
event [31]. When the focus is on the problem, it is aimed at modifying
the current conditions to reduce the psychological pressure and to
see a change in lifestyles [31]. On the other hand, when the focus
is on emotions, it is intended to regulate them; therefore, coping
strategies are aimed at reducing the stress experienced [31].
Therefore, CBT focuses on modifying irrational thoughts
and beliefs so that the patient can adopt an adequate behavioral
response to his condition, moving away from negative emotions
[69]. For this, ‘is widely used, according to which stress-activating
events are first to be identified, moving to identification and
understanding of the belief about it and ending with an exploration
of emotional and behavioral consequences arising from previously
identified beliefs [59]. Through CBT, cardiovascular patients are
oriented to improve their self-management skills, understanding
which behaviors compromise their recovery and which must be
changed to achieve the best adaptation and prevention of CVD [59].
The psychologist’s role consists in assisting the patient in a safe and
secure therapeutic context of confrontational strategies so that he
can change his perception of the disease and the stress that comes
from it [70]. With follow-up, the patient can look for more effective
ways to face their situation [70]. This confrontation of beliefs
is hugely relevant because it allows the patients to counter their
negative feelings and the perception that they are incapable of the
notion of self-efficacy and feelings of competence [71].
It is common for patients to feel stressed about the whole
situation, and CBT seeks to raise awareness of this stress, encourage
the practice of relaxation exercises, and help identify dysfunctional
thoughts [72]. Furthermore, expressing these thoughts is beneficial
for emotional regulation to change attitudes toward life and goals
[73]. The practical strategies CBT uses, control stress levels,
breathing exercises, psychoeducation, and meditation programs
can be highlighted [74]. Li & Colleagues [75] found that patients
suffering from hypertension are more responsive to interventions
based on cognitive strategies, thus decreasing the levels of anxiety
and depression. However, it has been reported that passive (e.g.,
lying down) and intellectual (e.g., writing) strategies are, in CVD
patients, more associated with negative emotions [76]. On the
other hand, physical strategies (such as “walking in the street” and
“walking in the park”) were identified with positive emotions. [76].
For cardiovascular patients, physical activity is essential to increase
their sense of self-care and well-being [77].
This positive association between physical strategies and
cardiovascular patients is justified by the fact that they attribute
an active role to the patient in his self-care [76]. Concerning
intellectual strategies, their negative association with obtaining
results may be related to the fact that cardiovascular patients are
mostly older and may have cognitive limitations that lead them
to choose less complex regulation strategies [78]. Therefore,
previous investigations reported that CBT obtains positive results
for cardiovascular patients because it moves them to adopt healthy
eating plans and eliminate risk behaviors [75,79]. Emotional
regulation is also achieved positively through this psychological
intervention [75]. Another issue is that CBT is as effective as
pharmaceutical therapy in reducing depression and anxiety
symptoms [68]. Thus, it is feasible for the patient to achieve a
homeostatic relationship between his life and health [70].
The emergence of a disease in a person’s life is undoubtedly a
crisis for the individual and his family. It requires a readjustment
of his reality and lifestyle. Therefore, in the face of any change,
adaptation is required [80-88]. CVD is mainly prevalent in older
generations, so some aspects must be considered. Family and
professional issues, particularly those involving financial support,
are big problems for these generations and, as a result, critical
elements for the patient’s adaptation. Through the rapid literature
review, it was possible to verify that the adaptation process
essentially involves helping the cardiovascular patient to reduce
the fear, anxiety, and depression manifested as a response to the
necessary changes in their lives [66,69,70].
Consequently, the strategies used are preventive tasks
of risk factors associated with CVD, and part of the disease
adaptation process is prevention. The importance of psychological
intervention in this context is not only due to the need to assist
individuals in a new situation, which implies new contexts, but also
has an environmental and economic weight. At the environmental
level, the success of the intervention plan would contribute to
the reduction of pharmacology use to the extent that individuals
would be endowed with coping strategies. As a result, there would
be an economic impact, as less drug usage would result in lower
economic expenditure, as would the need for medical services. The
costs associated with cardiovascular diseases per year are very high
compared to the Heal National system. In addition, multidisciplinary
work is essential for the intervention process to be holistic and
cover the different dimensions of cardiovascular disease. To this
end, multidisciplinary work occurs through the intervention of each
specialist simultaneously with psychological intervention. Recent
literature points out that psychological support is necessary for the
patient to face his condition, understand it, and seek to reduce his
suffering [48].
Bourbon M, Alves AC, Rato Q (2019) Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in the Portuguese population. Doctor Ricardo Jorge National Institute of Health (INSA, IP).
OPAS Brasil (2018) WHO reveals main causes of death and disability worldwide between 2000 and 2019 - PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization.
Fraga K, Faria H (2020) The psychosocial aspects of the individual with heart disease. Psychology Notebooks 2(3).
Petrie KJ, Weinman JA (1997) Illness representations and recovery from myocardial infarction. In: Petrie KJ, Weinman JA (Eds.), Perceptions of health & illness, Harwood Academic Publishers, UK, pp. 441-462.
Rosengren A, Perk J, Dallongeville J (2009) Prevention of cardiovascular disease. In: Camm J, Thomas A, Luscher F, Serruys W (Eds.), The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 403-437.
Vasconcelos CB (2007) Quality of life, anxiety and depression after myocardial infarction. Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil.
Magalhães S (2008) Evaluation of the effect of a cardiac rehabilitation program on the main cardiovascular risk factors. University of Porto, Portugal.
Campos EP (2010) Psychosomatic aspects in cardiology: Somatization mechanisms and means of reacting to stress. Psychosomatics today, Artmed Editora SA, pp. 318-342.
D’Amato CVS (2008) Deaths, losses and mourning in cardiology. In: Almeida CP, Ribeiro ALA (Eds.), Psychology in cardiology: New Trends, Point, pp.199-208.
Brouette B (1998) Complications of stress induced by heart disease. In: Fontaine O, Kulbertus H, Étienne A (Eds.), Stress and cardiology. Climepsi Editors, pp. 87-100.
Pederson S, Kupper N, Johan D (2009) Psychological factors and heart disease. In: Camm J, Thomas A, Luscher F, Serruys W (Eds.), The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 1287-1305.
Étienne AM, Pierard L (1998) The integrated approach to hospitalization. In: Fontaine O, Kulbertus H, Étienne AM (Eds.), Stress and cardiology, Climepsi Editors, pp. 162-167.
Walling A, Tremblay GJ, Jobin J, Charest J, Delage F, et al. (1988) Evaluating the rehabilitation potential of a large population of post-myocardial infarction patients: Adverse prognosis for women. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation 8: 99-106.
Lemes CB, Neto JO (2017) Applications of psychoeducation in the context of health. Themes in Psychology 25(1): 17-28.
McIntyre T (1994) Health Psychology: Unity in Diversity. In: McIntyre T (Ed.) Health Psychology: areas of intervention and future perspectives, Apport, pp. 17-32.
Kotiranta U, Suvinen T, Forssell H (2014) Tailored treatments in temporomandibular disorders: Where are we now? A systematic qualitative literature review. Journal of Oral & Facial Pain and Headache 28(1): 28-37.
Tessler J, Bordoni B (2020) Cardiac Rehabilitation. PubMed, Stat Pearls Publishing.
Gielen S, Mezzani A, Hambrecht R, Saner H (2009) Cardiac rehabilitation. In: Camm J, Thomas A, Luscher F, Serruys PW (Eds.), The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 919-955.
Johnston D (1997) Coronary heart disease: Treatment. In: Baum A, Newman S, Weinman J, West R, McManus C (Eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine, Cambridge University Press, UK, pp. 421-423.
Saleh S (2017) The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral stress management training on Quality of life and clinical symptoms of cardiovascular patients. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal 10(1): 295-302.
Carvalho ADC (2007) Statistical Yearbook of Portugal. National Institute of Statistics.
Bourbon M, Alves AC, Rato Q (2019) Prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in the Portuguese population. Doctor Ricardo Jorge National Institute of Health (INSA, IP).
OPAS Brasil (2018) WHO reveals main causes of death and disability worldwide between 2000 and 2019 - PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization.
Fraga K, Faria H (2020) The psychosocial aspects of the individual with heart disease. Psychology Notebooks 2(3).
Petrie KJ, Weinman JA (1997) Illness representations and recovery from myocardial infarction. In: Petrie KJ, Weinman JA (Eds.), Perceptions of health & illness, Harwood Academic Publishers, UK, pp. 441-462.
Rosengren A, Perk J, Dallongeville J (2009) Prevention of cardiovascular disease. In: Camm J, Thomas A, Luscher F, Serruys W (Eds.), The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 403-437.
Vasconcelos CB (2007) Quality of life, anxiety and depression after myocardial infarction. Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil.
Magalhães S (2008) Evaluation of the effect of a cardiac rehabilitation program on the main cardiovascular risk factors. University of Porto, Portugal.
Campos EP (2010) Psychosomatic aspects in cardiology: Somatization mechanisms and means of reacting to stress. Psychosomatics today, Artmed Editora SA, pp. 318-342.
D’Amato CVS (2008) Deaths, losses and mourning in cardiology. In: Almeida CP, Ribeiro ALA (Eds.), Psychology in cardiology: New Trends, Point, pp.199-208.
Brouette B (1998) Complications of stress induced by heart disease. In: Fontaine O, Kulbertus H, Étienne A (Eds.), Stress and cardiology. Climepsi Editors, pp. 87-100.
Pederson S, Kupper N, Johan D (2009) Psychological factors and heart disease. In: Camm J, Thomas A, Luscher F, Serruys W (Eds.), The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 1287-1305.
Étienne AM, Pierard L (1998) The integrated approach to hospitalization. In: Fontaine O, Kulbertus H, Étienne AM (Eds.), Stress and cardiology, Climepsi Editors, pp. 162-167.
Walling A, Tremblay GJ, Jobin J, Charest J, Delage F, et al. (1988) Evaluating the rehabilitation potential of a large population of post-myocardial infarction patients: Adverse prognosis for women. Journal of Cardiopulmonary Rehabilitation 8: 99-106.
Lemes CB, Neto JO (2017) Applications of psychoeducation in the context of health. Themes in Psychology 25(1): 17-28.
McIntyre T (1994) Health Psychology: Unity in Diversity. In: McIntyre T (Ed.) Health Psychology: areas of intervention and future perspectives, Apport, pp. 17-32.
Kotiranta U, Suvinen T, Forssell H (2014) Tailored treatments in temporomandibular disorders: Where are we now? A systematic qualitative literature review. Journal of Oral & Facial Pain and Headache 28(1): 28-37.
Tessler J, Bordoni B (2020) Cardiac Rehabilitation. PubMed, Stat Pearls Publishing.
Gielen S, Mezzani A, Hambrecht R, Saner H (2009) Cardiac rehabilitation. In: Camm J, Thomas A, Luscher F, Serruys PW (Eds.), The ESC textbook of cardiovascular medicine, Oxford University Press, UK, pp. 919-955.
Johnston D (1997) Coronary heart disease: Treatment. In: Baum A, Newman S, Weinman J, West R, McManus C (Eds.), Cambridge Handbook of Psychology, Health and Medicine, Cambridge University Press, UK, pp. 421-423.
Saleh S (2017) The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral stress management training on Quality of life and clinical symptoms of cardiovascular patients. Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal 10(1): 295-302.
Professor, Chief Doctor, Director of Department of Pediatric Surgery, Associate Director of Department of Surgery, Doctoral Supervisor Tongji hospital, Tongji medical college, Huazhong University of Science and Technology
Senior Research Engineer and Professor, Center for Refining and Petrochemicals, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
Interim Dean, College of Education and Health Sciences, Director of Biomechanics Laboratory, Sport Science Innovation Program, Bridgewater State University