Claudine Chegini and Andrew Schmitz*
Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Florida, USA
*Corresponding author: Andrew Schmitz, Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of Florida, USA
Submission: March 12, 2021;Published: March 26, 2021
Volume2 Issue5March, 2021
Since the development of GMO technology in the 1990’s, the introduction of GM products
into the market has resulted in scientific, economic, and societal debate. Despite potential
benefits towards food security, crop production (first generation GMOs), food quality (second
generation GMOs), and pharmaceutical applications (third generation GMOs), opponents
argue that long term environmental and health side effects of GMO use are still largely
unknown. This article offers a survey over the broad scope of the economics surrounding
GMO use and the implementation of agricultural biotechnology.
First generation GM crop traits are agronomic qualities such as pest resistance and
herbicide tolerance. More than 50 percent of current field trials are second generation traits
which enhance product quality and stress tolerance. Third generation GM crops, which are
engineered to produce pharmaceutical products such as vaccines, antibodies, or proteins, are
less widely used and many are still in developmental stages. Here we focus mainly on firstand
second-generation GM crops that are intended for use as food and feed. GM crops that are
used for fiber, such as Bt Cotton, have a different supply and demand structure and should be
considered a separate class of GM agricultural products.
GM technology stands to provide increased benefits to producers through multiple
channels. Furthermore, the advantages that GM technology offers to establishing increased
food security are unparalleled by conventional breeding methods. However, global consumer
and therefore policymaker response to GM technology has been prolific and widely varied.
Many of the concerns regarding first and second-generation GMOs center on environmental
issues. Some of these arguments raise the potential for cross pollination of GM and non-GM
crops, resulting in the transfer of GM genes into wild populations. Cross pollination of Gm and
non-GM crops can also result in the persistence of the gene after a GMO has been harvested,
the susceptibility of non-target organisms to the gene product, the instability of new genes,
the reduction of the spectrum of other plants resulting in a significant loss of biodiversity and
an increase in the use of chemicals in agriculture [1]. Additionally, the mixing of GM crops with
those derived from conventional seeds could have an indirect negative effect on food safety
and food security. The main concerns for human health have been the possibility of a transfer
of allergens into foods, or the gene transfer from GM foods to human cells or to bacteria in the
gastrointestinal tract. The same debate also occurs at the societal level. Without a consensus
of approval by society, GM food crops struggle in the marketplace as consumer attitudes with
respect to genetically modified foods differ widely, particularly between North America and
Europe.
Lakkakula P et al. [2] dispel a few common misconceptions surrounding the use of GM
technology. They present the overall health and environmental safety of GM technology in the
context of global food security. Their findings support those of others that the implementation
of different types of GM crop technology are not only safe for human consumption and
decrease pesticide and herbicide inputs but can increase farmer profit by up to 68% while
simultaneously reducing food insecurity. Also, mandatory labeling would have a negative
impact on certain consumers though increased food costs. Indeed, because GMO labeling
necessitates separate supply chains for GM and non-GM food, any additional production costs
are passed on to the consumer in the form of higher prices. Lesser (2014) estimates that
mandatory GMO labeling would increase food costs for a family of four by $500 per year.
While relatively few GM crops are planted in the US, those
crops make up a large percentage of crops planted. These crops
include, corn, soybeans, canola, sugar beets, and cotton. According
to the FDA, in 2018 94% of soybeans and cotton planted were
GM crops and in 2013 99.9% of all sugar beets were GM. From a
world perspective, while overall adoption of biotech crops slightly
declined from 2018 to 190.4 million hectares planted worldwide,
the adoption rate of the top five biotech growing countries (USA,
Brazil, Argentina, Canada, India) reached close to 100 percent. As
of last year, 29 countries planted GM crops and an additional 42
countries imported those crops. Furthermore, economic gains from
biotech crops cumulatively reached US$225 billion from 1996 to
2018 [3].
Table 1 gives a breakdown of hectares planted to biotech crops
globally in 2019. Biotech cotton, corn, soybeans, and canola are still
the top biotech crop planted in the US and globally. The diversity
of biotech crops has expanded over the past ten years to include
summer squash, papaya, apples, alfalfa, sugar beets, eggplant,
safflower, potatoes, and pineapple. The United States leads in
both area planted to biotech crops and in biotech crop diversity.
This is partly because other countries are slower to approve new
biotech crops. However, major crops such as wheat and rice are not
currently GM crops. On a global scale there is increasing public and
private research in development of new varieties of biotech rice,
bananas, chickpeas, wheat, pigeon peas, and mustard [3].
Table 1:Global area of Biotech crops in 2019.
Data Source: ISAAA 2019.
We focus on oats, potatoes, and peanuts in the US to exemplify a range of problems that arise with the creation, adoption, and proliferation of biotech crops. Creating new GE and GM varieties requires significant research and development expenditure that sometimes cannot be justified by the potential returns. Such is the case with oats, especially as large manufacturers, such as General Mills, move towards a “non-GMO” marketing technique. Mitchell D [4] quotes Ron Barnett, oat breeder and professor emeritus of agronomy at the University of Florida in saying “there’s no money and no desire” for research into creating a biotech oat variety as there is not enough demand for such a product. The nonexistence of a GM or GE oat variety presents a contrast between certain brands of oats and their respective marketing and labeling techniques with regard to non-GMO labeling. For example, Quaker Oats is owned by parent company PepsiCo that has a global market presence. Quaker Oats, along with other PepsiCo owned brands such as Tropicana and Naked Juice, carries a voluntary Non-GMO Project Certified label in the United States. Conversely, the majority of generic or supermarket brands in the United States tend not to carry any such labels. Notable exceptions are the Whole Foods 365 and the Publix Greenwise brands that are either non-GMO Project certified or have a USDA Organic certification, which requires products to be non-GMO. Companies that choose not to label their generic brands, even if the product is inherently non-GMO, such as with oats or orange juice, likely choose not to do so because of added costs associated with labeling and product segregation. Furthermore, local and regionally based generic supermarket brands are not held to the same consumer standards as those brands produced by multinational companies with high market visibility such as PepsiCo or General Mills. As Bjorn Bernemann, vice president and manager for the Tropicana brand in North America stated to the New York Times [5] “consumers today have a desire and transparency from brands, and that desire is only going to increase….Some consumers…are expressing a desire to get beyond what brands are actually telling them, and we felt having external verification would give our consumers assurance.”
As Dr. Jordan D [6] an extension peanut specialist at NC State, explains, peanuts present a slightly different case in which investments have been made in creating varieties that are resistant to some fungi and viruses. However, these varieties are not currently in use due to their non-marketability and will “not be used as long as the industry perceives that the markets could be lost because people fear or have a philosophy against this approach.” Jordan goes on to say that the “peanut industry as a whole is trying to capture more markets around the world, including Europe. For that reason and knowing the mixed feelings about GMOs by the general public and the possible loss of potential markets, the industry has decided not to go in the GMO direction.”
Multiple GM cultivars of potatoes have been created, tested, and brought to market over the past two decades. The Monsanto New Leaf potato was introduced in 1995 and was rapidly adopted and planted acres increased to 50,000 by 1999. However, this initial popularity was short lived due to the concurrent increase in consumer concerns surrounding GM food products. At the time, techniques for testing and segregating Gm and non-GM potatoes were not well developed and rather than seeing increased profits, potato processors were being forced to change market channels due to consumer preference. As such, in 2001 Monsanto stopped producing New Leaf potato seeds [7]. BASF’s amflora potato that was created specifically for industrial production of potato starch went much the same way due to opposition to the GM product in the European Union [8]. Simplot’s Innate line of potato varieties approved by the USDA in 2014 has faced a similar demise in the US. Designed to resist bruising, browning, and to contain less of the amino acid asparagine that forms a carcinogen acrylamide at high temperature cooking, Innate potatoes present a possible health benefit when used instead of conventionally grown potatoes. However, although Simplot is a major supplier for McDonalds, the company has no intentions of purchasing a GM potato due to consumer concerns over GM and GE technology [9]. This is perhaps a reason why some fast food chains have shifted from the use of GMO to non-GMO potatoes.
Until very recently, Africa’s use of GM technology has been intertwined with the strict regulations put in place by the EU. As a major export market for many African countries, EU consumer demand for non-GMO agricultural products has greatly deterred the implementation of GM crops in Africa from the late 1990’s. Historically, African leaders and regulatory boards have been hesitant to approve first- and second-generation GM food products for human consumption. Part of this hesitancy is derived from the precautionary principle perspective of their European trading partners. However, some would argue that the situation is more complex. [10] suggest that the ultimate adoption of GM crops on the African continent will depend upon a complex interaction between domestic, foreign, social, economic, political, and scientific factors. Especially relevant is the participation of multinationals, public private partnerships, and foreign aid.
To wit, external donors must be relied upon to supply monies
for projects that often take upwards of 8 to 10 years; biotechnology
companies must agree to share their proprietary technologies
and see their engagement in African biotechnology projects as
being in their interests; legal frameworks that satisfy the owners
of gene technologies-mainly, MNCs-have to be established; relationships among organizations with different motives,
agendas, organizational cultures, and degrees of power have to
be built and maintained over long periods; external partners (aid
agencies, philanthropic foundations, and multinational firms)
must remain satisfied that their resources are not being wasted;
public support must be cultivated; activist and public opposition
must be kept at bay; concerns about encroachments on sovereignty
must be overcome; the GM crop varieties that are produced must
be affordable and profitable for farmers; and farmers and sellers
must see them as attractive. Seldom is this complex choreography
successfully achieved” [10].
However, Asian trading partners such as India have recently
begun to eclipse the EU as a trading partner for the African continent.
[3] Furthermore, with recent increases in intra-African trade and
the approval of GM cowpea in Nigeria, many African countries are
initiating field trials of other GM crops such as bananas and cassava.
With trading partners more willing to accept GM products and a
gradual shift of consumer and policymaker attitudes towards GMOs,
the African continent as a whole may begin to implement the use of
more GM technology. Small farmers in African countries provide a
large share of domestically consumed food. A recent interview by
Cornell scholars [11] spoke directly with Zambian farmers recently
affected by climate related crop loss. Due to recent struggles to
produce crops under current conditions, many of these small-scale
farmer are also beginning to recognize the importance of GM crop
technology in the future of food security for the African continent.
Notably, Uganda has begun field trials for a GM Banana. Indeed,
as Lakkakula P et al. [2] state, with decreasing natural resources,
methods for increasing agricultural productivity will help ensure
food security.
Lakkakula P et al. [2] find that the introduction of a GM rice variety that increases global yield by 5% could result in a consumer gain of US$23.4 billion to US$74.8 billion but could also result in a producer loss of US$9.7 billion to US$63.7 billion. The estimated net gain to society could be US$11.1 billion to US$13.7 billion. Overall, they find a positive economic surplus for major exporters and importers of rice based on a 5% supply increase with a GM rice variety. Additionally, the adoption of transgenic or GM rice varieties would have a far greater impact on rice prices for poorer counties than for richer countries. Therefore, GM rice may help ensure that more people throughout the world would have food security. Furthermore, GM crops need not be directly for food or feed in order to have a positive impact on general food security. This is evidenced by Qaim M et al. [12] who show that increased crop yields from the adoption of Bt cotton increases farm household income and thereby indirectly reduces food insecurity by almost 20 percent. When considering public investment in parts of Africa, the focus appears to be away from basic food crops, such as cassava. Moss C et al. [13] calculate that the rate of return to R&D in cassava cultivation in Uganda in general (both GMO and non-GMO) is extremely high. They find that expanding the supply of cassava in Uganda with investments directed towards increasing production (such as expanding the use of GM cassava) results in increases in both consumer and producer surplus. However, when cassava is used for ethanol, the supply becomes split and returns to R&D are greatly diminished due to reduced consumer surplus.
In assessing the economics of GMOs, we use a simplified
version of the framework given in [14]. Four cases are considered
here to demonstrate the complexities of supply and demand for
GM and non-GM food products. Much research on the returns to
GM crop adoption focuses on potential gains to society. Often
neglected are potential market risks, the complex dynamics of
producer profitability, and the effect of consumer preference for
GM or non-GM on the demand schedule for a certain product. For
example, producer profitability depends on many factors, including
the savings on overall inputs from GMO adoption and the impact
of commodity prices that depend on consumer acceptability [14].
Additionally, for almost all GM varieties, there still exist varying
numbers of non-GM producers. When consumers differentiate
between a GM and non-GM product, which is often the case, this
producer duality results in one group bearing the cost of market
segmentation. In some instances, differentiating the GM and non-
GM product results in additional gains for the producer group that
receives the higher price. However, this is not always the case.
Indeed, for some GM products, not only is there an excess supply of
the non-GM counterpart to satisfy consumer demand, but often no
significant price premium is paid. Ultimately, because there are few
instances in which consumers view a GM food product as a perfect
substitute for the same conventionally produced non-GM item,
the continuing adoption of agricultural biotechnology will depend
critically on consumer perception [14].
To measure the aggregate welfare, change from GM adoption,
Schmitz A et al. [15] consider the segmented market for GM
products. Because some consumers may differentiate between
GM or non-GM products, and are willing to pay accordingly,
aggregate welfare change must consider the change in producer
and consumer surplus for GM and non-GM channels separately.
Additional segregation costs and changes to government support
payments due to GM implementation also affect the net gains to
society.
Supply increases with no change to demand
Figure 1:
If consumers consider the GM product to be identical to its non- GM counterpart, then the two products will be perfect substitutes for each other. In Figure 1, suppose an increase in efficiency from the introduction of the GM crop shifts the supply schedule from S to S’. If there is no change in the demand schedule, then producers gain (P2bg-P1af) and consumers gain (eP2g-eP1f) for a net gain to societal welfare of (abgf).
Demand increases with no change to supply
Consider the case where consumers consider the GM product to be superior to its non-GM counterpart, but supply remains unchanged. Demand shifts from D to D’ and S remains unchanged. This might be the case for a GM trait that provides nutritional or taste benefits to the consumer rather than increasing producer efficiency through improving yields or providing pesticide/ herbicide resistance. In this scenario, consumer surplus increases by (dP3h-eP1f) and producer surplus increases by (P3P1fh). However, segregation costs will be incurred to GM producers in order to maintain separate market channels to receive higher prices from consumers who view the GM product to be more favorable. Therefore, overall net gains are slightly limited when compared to the first scenario.
Outward shift in supply is offset by decreased demand
Suppose that consumers consider the GM product to be in some way inferior to the conventionally produced product so that an outward shift in the supply schedule is offset by an inward shift of demand. In this case, non-GM products may sell at a higher price than the GM product or there may be zero demand for the GM product. Consumer preference for the non-GM product will incur segregation costs to non-GM producers who will maintain separate market channels in order to receive a higher price. If segregation costs equally offset increased prices, then non-GM producers lose. If there remains a market for the GM product, it is still possible to society to gain on net from the introduction of the GM product, but gains will be significantly smaller than in the first scenario.
Supply and demand both increase
Now suppose that the introduction of a GM product causes supply to shift from S to S’ and demand to shift from D to D’. In this case, the adoption of the GM crop creates increased efficiency for producers and consumers consider the GM product to be superior. This case results in large potential gains to society with a net gain of the area (abcf + defc).
While not discussed in the above model, the adoption of GMOs can affect international trade and the welfare of importers and exporters [14]. If an exporting country adopts a GM crop, countries importing that crop will benefit on net, but producers in the importing country will lose as prices fall. Many countries, especially those in the EU, have implemented vary levels of regulation on the importation and domestic production of agricultural goods that are considered GM. Governmental regulatory bodies often site health and environmental concerns over GM products, however, from a trade perspective, their policies could be interpreted as protectionist rent-seeking behavior stemming from lobbying of import-competing producers [14].
GMO Regulations
While the majority of policy makers agree that GE crop
technology requires safety regulations, regulatory laws surrounding
GE technology vary greatly among countries. For example, the
United States implements regulations under the assumption that
GM and non-GMO crops are similar based upon the concept of
substantial equivalence. The EU rejects this basis and instead uses
a Precautionary Principle to design their regulatory framework,
which greatly limits the implementation and adoption of GMO crops
in the EU. Furthermore, differences in domestic and international
GE crop regulations have the potential to impede international
trade, especially for countries trading with EU members. While
most would agree that regulations are necessary, the required
degree of stringency is controversial. Therefore, an approach to
regulatory policy that considers reversible and irreversible costs
and benefits may be useful when implementing regulations for
new GE technology. The EU also requires mandatory labeling of
products containing GMO crops while the US does not.
As Schmitz A et al. [14] state, “Producer and environmental
groups in many countries, especially import-competing countries,
oppose GM crops. This is especially true in the European Union.
In some cases, certain producer groups may play on consumer
fears over the health risks of GMOs in order to create or maintain
non-tariff barriers to protect their domestic industry. Domestic
producers competing against foreign imports can participate in
rent-seeking behaviour-that is, the behaviour of individuals seeking
profits through political action to ban imports so that producers
can keep the domestic price for their product at high levels.”
Recently, the European Court of Justice passed a judgment that
organisms obtained by genome editing are regulated under the
same restrictions as transgenic organisms [16]. Under this new
judgment, genetically edited organisms that are indistinguishable
from conventionally bred organisms created through methods
such crossing or random mutagenesis, will be subject to the same
regulations as transgenic organisms, such as those modified with
CRIPSR and Cas9 technology. This new judgment poses multiple
regulatory and consumer confidence issues [16] which reinforce
the work by Herring and Paarlberg (2016) who suggest that “GE
crops are diverse and the decision to treat them as one entity is
justified on political and social attitudes more than a reflection of
scientific reality” [17].
While there are many arguments as to why the EU has adopted
much more stringent policy on GMO regulation than the US and
other large agricultural exporters, the EU consumer resistance to
GM food products has come to dominate both global and domestic
perspectives. The global consumer attitude towards GM food
products over the past decade has greatly affected the marketability
of GM food products. Moreover, although there seems to be a global
consensus on the use of GE technology in production of cotton fiber
and for some animal feeds, a wide array of disagreements remains
amongst both consumers and policymakers concerning the use of
GE technology in food production.
When the lines become blurred around the definitions of
agriculturally traded products or it becomes difficult to segregate
and identify otherwise homogenous products, producers, importers,
and exporters become vulnerable to lawsuits in relation to GM
regulatory laws. In the Star Link Corn case [18] the US exported
a non-licensed GMO corn to Japan. The Japanese embargoed US
corn exports to Japan after this occurred. Later, in 2013 the Chinese
embargoed imports of GMO corn from the United States because
it was according to the Chinese a GMO variety they did not want
to purchase. The result of the case involving the Chinese embargo
of US corn is discussed with reference to Figure 2. A GMO can be
licensed for production, for example US corn, however this does
not guarantee that there will be any foreign buyers for the product.
For example, in 2013, China embargoed the importation of corn
from the US, arguing that the GMO corn variety may not have met
Chinese standards. This embargo resulted in market disruptions. As
shown in Figure 1, US exports to China dropped dramatically from
2013 onwards. In terms of consumption, there are any regulation
that dictate the giving of import and export licenses concerning
food quality. These intricacies further complicate the matter with
international trade and create inefficiencies throughout the supply
chain.
Figure 2:
Since 1996 the use of GE technology has increased substantially
in North and South America, specifically in the United States,
Canada, Brazil and Argentina. The GE food crops planted in these
countries are maize, soybeans, canola, and sugar beets, of which 90-
100% percent of these crops planted are GE [3]. Recent literature
has focused on the impact of pest-control traits and yields in these
crops. “Although the adoption of GE varieties may tend to increase
yields by reducing pest damage, it may also inadvertently decrease
yield if the GE trait is inserted into a variety inferior to the one it is
intended to replace.
As such, some may argue that first generation GE crops have
a more significant impact in areas that are vulnerable to extreme
infestations where traditional pest control methods have not been effective and in developing countries that have less access
to alternative pest control mechanisms [19]. However, this
perspective neglects the potential input savings and risk reduction
from use of GE crops, such as decreased expenditure on pesticides
and herbicides etc. Furthermore, multiple studies have found that
implementation of GE cotton has resulted in a decrease of farmer
exposure to pesticides and herbicides, especially in China and other
Asian countries. This is also relevant to the case of Bt corn which
has been shown to decrease the level of aflatoxin in Asian crops.
Zilberman et al. [17] argue that there is a greenhouse gas
reduction potential of implementing GE crops. Due to the yield
effect of GE technology and the inelastic nature of demand for
food, the adoption of agricultural biotechnology can increase
input demands in terms of land, water, and energy use. However,
adoption of herbicide tolerant GE crops has simultaneously
reduced greenhouse gas emissions through allowing the expansion
of double-cropping and no-tillage practices.
Proponents of conventional breeding and those who oppose GM
technology in agriculture may pose the argument that conventional
breeding methods can lead to equal and sometimes greater yield
growth than the use of GM varieties. However, Chavas JP et al. [20]
find that while both conventional and GM maize hybrids have been
selected for yield and stress tolerance and over time have both given
higher average yields, GM maize increases the yields associated
with higher planting density and by reducing the adverse effects
from maize-maize rotations can be a substitute for crop rotation
all together.
In their overview, Ahmar S et al. [21] present that in most crop breeding programs, despite increased yields, the rate of increase is insufficient to match the food demand from the rapid growth in global population. Because of long crop durations and time intensive development processes, creating new cultivars through traditional methods can take anywhere from one to two decades. However, as Ahmar S et al. [21] suggest, the ability to develop new varieties more quickly would aid in alleviating food scarcity problems and increasing food security. While older transgenic breeding methods can also be time consuming, recent advances in genome editing technology using programmable nucleases, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), and CRISPRassociated (Cas) proteins present new options such as speed breeding, genome editing and high-throughput phenotyping to more quickly increase crop efficiency. Indeed, they conclude that the targeted mutagenesis allowed by genome editing breeding technologies is superior to conventional methods and older GE methods in its ability to provide fast, efficient, and specifically targeted results.
In terms of the marketability and introduction of GMO food
products:
A. The GM variety is viewed by the consumer as equivalent
to conventional crops.
B. The GM variety is viewed inferior to conventional
varieties; or
C. The GM variety is viewed superior to traditional crops.
Consumers in general seem to prefer non-GM varieties when
given a choice between those and their GM equivalents. Lewis
KE et al. [22] examine consumer Willingness to Pay (WTP) for
imported and GM labeled sugar and find that participant WTP
for bags of sugar and sugar in soft drinks labeled as “GM” was
significantly negative while participant WTP for bags of sugar
and sugar in soft drinks labeled as “Not GM” was significantly
positive. Their results can be extrapolated to suggest that
mandatory GM labeling laws might be detrimental to U.S.
producers who grow GM sugar beets. Meanwhile, this could
be beneficial to the U.S. sugarcane industry because, although
GM sugarcane is available, they do not currently use GM seeds.
Furthermore, their results that participants have a positive
WTP for sugar labeled as “Not GM” indicate that there may be
incentive for farmers and food manufacturers to voluntarily
label their food products as “Not GM.” This strategy is often
seen on food products with sources that do not necessarily
even have a GM counterpart, such as many fruit juices, baby
foods, and snacks.
The issue of sugar from GM sugar beets verses sugar from non-
GM sugarcane raises a secondary controversy. Both sugar beets and
sugarcane are grown and processed to produce sucrose. While it is
clear that GM sugar beets should be considered a GM product and
any non-GM sugarcane is not a GM product, it is less clear how sugar
that is derived from these two sources should be labeled. Cane sugar
and beet sugar are both sucrose that is chemically indistinguishable
from the other. Furthermore, refined sucrose contains no proteins
which are what would help identify the product as GM or not GM.
Very similar arguments surrounding definitions and labeling apply
to the market for oils and starches that are derived from a GM
product but contain no novel DNA or proteins due to the nature of
processing.
On this issue, Kennedy PL et al. [23] show that the negative
demand impacts for sugar from GM sugar beets can outweigh the
supply-induced gains of GM sugar beet research and development.
They conclude that while one may assume agricultural biotechnology
would benefit producers through increased productivity and
reduced input requirements, consumer demand response to the
GM product can affect the market to the point that the producer
benefits from GM adoption become eroded. The work by Lewis KE
et al. [24] and McConnell M [25,26] suggests that this particular
model presented by Kennedy PL et al. [23] is likely the case for
the cane and beet sugar market, especially if mandatory labeling
is required. They show that that, if given constant demand, sugar
beet producers stand to benefit from biotechnology adoption while
sugarcane producers may experience depressed prices. However,
consumer aversion to the biotech product could alter this outcome.
If demand for the GM beet sugar decreases while demand for non-
GM cane sugar increases, then scenarios could exist in which sugar beet producers are worse off while sugarcane producers benefit
from the sugar beet industry’s adoption of GM product.
Regarding consumer attitude towards GE and GM products,
Schmitz TG et al. [27] develop a signaling game in order to derive
the equilibrium conditions under which certain special interest
groups have the incentive to truthfully release information verses
manipulating consumer opinions by spinning facts about the health
impact of GE food products. They find that consumer strategies are
depending upon their inspection costs, which is a function of the
time required to learn about each piece of information. When the
overall supply of information is increased, consumer inspection
costs rise. Marketing strategies of both pro and anti GE special
interest groups are dependent upon consumer actions and when it
becomes too costly for consumers to inspect any messages, anti GE
groups will signal negative messages as long as their spin costs are
relatively low. On the other hand, Pro GE groups are put in a more
difficult position because they take on relatively more risk when
spreading positive messages about GE food products. If it were to
turn out that the consumption of GE food does in fact pose a risk to
human health, then knowingly claiming the opposite would at best
hurt the credibility of the pro-GE group and at worst could lead to
litigation. When compared to the message of anti-GE groups, pro-
GE groups lose out because conventional and organic foods are
already readily accepted by consumers.
A continuing source of confusion for many consumers is
the topic of product labeling. There are many different labeling
options for producers, manufacturers, and retailers, most of which
require a regulatory approval or verification process in order to
use. However, some labels, especially those that do not require any
certification, can be confusing at best and deliberately misleading at
worst. For instance, the United States currently has no requirement
to label produce or products that do or do not contain GE or GM
components. However, due to general consumer mentality and
brand presence in foreign markets, many companies and producers
choose to label their goods as non-GE or non-GMO. Unfortunately,
while the FDA recommends a third-party verification to substantiate
the claim of voluntary non- GMO labeling, in the United States there
is no legal enforceability against entities that inaccurately label
their products. Rules for meat, poultry, and eggs that are labeled
non-GMO are slightly more stringent and the USDA requires these
manufacturers to comply with the standards of an accredited thirdparty
verification organization such as the Non-GMO Project or
those that are able to certify for the USDA Organic label. In the US,
the use of GMOs is prohibited in products with the USDA Organic
label. Some individual states have passed legislation requiring
mandatory labeling of some products that contain GMOs, however
enforcement remains difficult as long as the US has no mandatory
federal requirements in place. Furthermore, in the United States
there is no agreed upon standard for non-GMO labeling nor is there
a firm regulatory definition of GM or non-GM.
In stark contract with the United States, at least 64 countries,
including all those in the European Union, The United Kingdom,
Japan, South Korea, China, New Zealand, and Australia, require
some form of labeling and traceability of all produce and products
containing genetically modified material in a quantity of higher
than a certain threshold percentage of each ingredient considered
individually.
Lakkakula P et al. [2], argue that GMO labeling results in
increased costs due to the creation of separate supply chains for
GM and non-GM products. When this labeling is mandatory, costs
are passed on to consumers in general. Loureiro ML et al. [28] find
that consumers in the United States are generally unwilling to pay
higher costs associated with mandatory labeling. However, when
labeling is voluntary, the cost is passed on to those consumers who
are willing to pay a premium for items labeled non-GMO, organic,
or pesticide free, to name a few. In the case of voluntary labeling,
while there are federal regulations and guidelines surrounding the
use of these labels, it is up to producer or middleman discretion
as to whether these labels are included. If enough consumers
are willing to pay for these labels, then there may be producer
incentive to include voluntary labels in order to receive a certain
price premium over a non-labeled product. Grebitus C et al. [29]
analyze the effect of voluntary food labeling in Medjool dates with a
focus on GMO, pesticide usage, and region of origin. They find that
while consumers are willing to pay a premium for both GMO-free
and pesticide-free labeled dates, they are willing to pay more for a
pesticide-free label. Furthermore, they find that the GMO-free and
pesticide-free labels are sub-additive in that the willingness to pay
for dates labeled both pesticide-free and GMO-free is lower than the
sum of the willingness to pay for both labels individually.
As with sugar beets and sucrose and other processed products
derived from a raw GM or GE product, controversy arises in regard
to GM labeling when livestock are fed GM or non-GM feed. Between
70-90% of all GM crops and their biomass are used for animal feed,
however there are comparably very few risk assessment studies
regarding the use of GM or GE crops primarily as animal feed
[30]. Furthermore, while the USDA’s FSIS has recently increased
requirements for voluntary labeling of meat and poultry products
that are produced without GM or GE feedstock [31] there are no
federal requirements for labeling in the US. As with produce, the
EU is stricter on labeling requirements. Additionally, the US has
approved
While not yet widely implemented, third generation GM crops
are not intended to enhance crop productivity or for use as food
or animal feed. One example of this is Plant-Made Pharmaceuticals
(PMPs) which are intended for use as therapeutic drugs for humans
or livestock, or as materials for research and industry (RAFI, 2008).
PMP plants are used as factories to produce the PMP product,
the product is extracted from the plant, and the plant remains
are discarded. Two reasons cited by proponents of pursing PMP
production are lower cost of production and increasing demand. Production of high-quality pharmaceutical components (proteins
and antibodies) is presently done using cell cultures inside
bioreactors, which is very costly and limits the size of the consumer
market. Proponents of PMP crops claim that PMP production
will increase the range of available drug products, reduce the
time required to bring new drugs to market, lower the cost of
drug production, and provide additional markets for farmers.
Opponents of PMP crops cite similar concerns to opponents of GM
products in general, such as potential food safety risks from cross
contamination of food crops, consumer skepticism of genetically
engineered products, potential environmental hazards, and past
regulatory mistakes as reasons for their opposition (RAFI, 2008).
Despite the early promise of Plant Molecular Farming (PMF) for
a variety of applications, it has failed to take an industry foothold
except in very niche areas. More recently, new plant breeding
techniques such as the CRISPR-cas 9 system offer even more
potential for improvement when oriented towards designing plants
for PMF use. However, Menary, et al. (2020) find that mostly nontechnical
barriers have prevented more prolific use of PMF within
the industry. At least in the EU, the current regulatory environment
coupled with ongoing negative public perception of biotechnology
in general continue to be the main barriers towards scaling-up PMF.
Nevertheless, many respondents to the Menary, et al. (2020) study
did believe that communication of the benefits and purpose of PMF
may improve social acceptability of genetic modification for those
purposes.
Since the introduction of agricultural biotechnology in 1996,
global use has increased more than 100-fold, making it the fastest
adopted crop technology introduced to date. Despite both advances
and setbacks, the established economic benefits and yet unrealized
potential of recent innovations in agricultural biotechnology with
regards to resource use and food security are irrefutable. While it
is important to recognize that this potential in no way undermines
the enduring importance of conventional breeding, there still
remains a somewhat unfounded pushback on the integration of
agricultural biotech into general use. Much of this controversy
arises from a combination of marketing spin from anti-GMO special
interest groups, stringent EU regulatory policy, and consequent
consumer reactions. Indeed, many major food commodities, such
as rice and wheat, are still predominantly conventionally bred. As
in the case of peanuts, many of these items will remain as such
unless major producers and processing companies are willing
to undertake the risk to convince consumers that genetically
modified products are safe. As Dr. Jude Grosser, plant geneticist at
UF states (Zilberman et al, 2019),“….HLB (Citrus greening disease
or Huanglongbing) can be solved by both biotechnology-facilitated
conventional breeding and by a transgenic solution…However,
there remains a significant problem with consumer acceptance
of a GMO solution. Manufacturers still want to retain consumer
confidence in the European Union- thus I am not sure how eager
they would be to commercialize a GMO solution. Moreover, they
both have anti-biotechnology labels currently on their orange juice products….. In my view, a transgenic solution to HLB will require
trees to have at least two transgenes that provide resistance by two
different mechanisms… we are now producing transgenic plants
with stacked genes in an effort to achieve this “long-term, stable”
resistance.”
Theoretically, ideally the highest payoff to society from GMOs is
a win-win situation where both producers and consumers benefit.
However, defining empirical evidence of such cases is difficult.
With the introduction of CRISPR and Cas9 technology, separation
and segregation of genetically modified and conventionally
products food products are becoming increasingly complicated.
Without known genome data, there is no fast or practical method
for determining if a product has been modified using CRISPR
technology. However, based upon new EU regulations, CRISPR
modified products must be labeled and treated in the same way as
other biotech products. This decision will likely drive some of the
choices made by global consumers and producers. It remains to be
seen if increasing demand amidst diminishing resources and the
pursuit of global food security will sway consumer perspective.
In perspective, evidence shows that there have been significant
increases in yield and productivity from GMO production. But this
is also true for traditional plant breeding activities. In their three
volumes on productivity and food security [32-34] raise the point
that in spite of widespread optimism about productivity increases
brought about by GM and GE technology, there is no consensus on
whether agricultural productivity growth can keep pace with the
increase in world population [35,36].
© 2021 Andrew Schmitz. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and build upon your work non-commercially.